Unit 2

Computer Networks.

Prepared by :

Ms Rachna Narula
Assitant professor
Bharatividyapeeth college of engineering ,
New Delhi

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  Data Link Layer
 In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top and 2nd
layer from the bottom.
 The communication channel that connects the adjacent nodes is known
as links, and in order to move the datagram from source to the destination,
the datagram must be moved across an individual link.
 The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer is to transfer the
datagram across an individual link.
 The Data link layer protocol defines the format of the packet exchanged
across the nodes as well as the actions such as Error detection,
retransmission, flow control, and random access.
 The Data Link Layer protocols are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI and PPP.
 An important characteristic of a Data Link Layer is that datagram can be
handled by different link layer protocols on different links in a path. For
example, the datagram is handled by Ethernet on the first link, PPP on the
second link.

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  Framing & Link access: Data Link Layer protocols encapsulate each
network frame within a Link layer frame before the transmission across the
link. A frame consists of a data field in which network layer datagram is
inserted and a number of data fields. It specifies the structure of the frame
as well as a channel access protocol by which frame is to be transmitted
over the link.
 Reliable delivery: Data Link Layer provides a reliable delivery service,
i.e., transmits the network layer datagram without any error. A reliable
delivery service is accomplished with transmissions and
acknowledgements. A data link layer mainly provides the reliable delivery
service over the links as they have higher error rates and they can be
corrected locally, link at which an error occurs rather than forcing to
retransmit the data.
 Flow control: A receiving node can receive the frames at a faster rate than
it can process the frame. Without flow control, the receiver's buffer can
overflow, and frames can get lost. To overcome this problem, the data link
layer uses the flow control to prevent the sending node on one side of the
link from overwhelming the receiving node on another side of the link.

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  Error detection: Errors can be introduced by signal attenuation
and noise. Data Link Layer protocol provides a mechanism to
detect one or more errors. This is achieved by adding error
detection bits in the frame and then receiving node can
perform an error check.
 Error correction: Error correction is similar to the Error
detection, except that receiving node not only detect the errors
but also determine where the errors have occurred in the
frame.
 Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex: In a Full-Duplex mode, both the
nodes can transmit the data at the same time. In a Half-Duplex
mode, only one node can transmit the data at the same time.

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  Design Issues for the Layers of Computer Networks
 Reliability
 Scalability
 Addressing
 Error Control
 Flow Control
 Resource Allocation
 Routing
 Security

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  Data-link Control & Protocols
 Data-link layer is responsible for implementation of
 point-to-point flow and
 error control mechanism.
 Flow Control
 When a data frame (Layer-2 data) is sent from one host
to another over a single medium, it is required that the
sender and receiver should work at the same speed.
That is, sender sends at a speed on which the receiver
can process and accept the data. What if the speed
(hardware/software) of the sender or receiver differs?
If sender is sending too fast the receiver may be
overloaded, (swamped) and data may be lost.
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  Two types of mechanisms can be deployed to control the flow:
 Stop and Wait

 This flow control mechanism forces the sender after

transmitting a data frame to stop and wait until the
acknowledgement of the data-frame sent is received.

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  Sliding Window
 In this flow control mechanism, both sender and receiver agree on the
number of data-frames after which the acknowledgement should be sent.
As we learnt, stop and wait flow control mechanism wastes resources, this
protocol tries to make use of underlying resources as much as possible.

 Error Control
 When data-frame is transmitted, there is a probability that data-frame
may be lost in the transit or it is received corrupted. In both cases, the
receiver does not receive the correct data-frame and sender does not
know anything about any loss.In such case, both sender and receiver
are equipped with some protocols which helps them to detect transit
errors such as loss of data-frame. Hence, either the sender retransmits
the data-frame or the receiver may request to resend the previous
data-frame.

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 
Requirements for error control mechanism:

 Error detection - The sender and receiver, either both or any, must ascertain
that there is some error in the transit.

 Positive ACK - When the receiver receives a correct frame, it should

acknowledge it.

 Negative ACK - When the receiver receives a damaged frame or a duplicate

frame, it sends a NACK back to the sender and the sender must retransmit the
correct frame.

 Retransmission: The sender maintains a clock and sets a timeout period. If an

acknowledgement of a data-frame previously transmitted does not arrive before the
timeout the sender retransmits the frame, thinking that the frame or it’s
acknowledgement is lost in transit.

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  There are three types of techniques available which Data-link layer may deploy to
control the errors by Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQ):
 Stop-and-wait ARQ

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  The following transition may occur in Stop-and-Wait ARQ:

 The sender maintains a timeout counter.

 When a frame is sent, the sender starts the timeout counter.
 If acknowledgement of frame comes in time, the sender
transmits the next frame in queue.
 If acknowledgement does not come in time, the sender
assumes that either the frame or its acknowledgement is lost in
transit. Sender retransmits the frame and starts the timeout
counter.
 If a negative acknowledgement is received, the sender
retransmits the frame.

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  Go-Back-N ARQ
 Stop and wait ARQ mechanism does not utilize the resources at their best.When the
acknowledgement is received, the sender sits idle and does nothing. In Go-Back-N
ARQ method, both sender and receiver maintain a window.

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  The sending-window size enables the sender to send multiple
frames without receiving the acknowledgement of the
previous ones. The receiving-window enables the receiver to
receive multiple frames and acknowledge them. The receiver
keeps track of incoming frame’s sequence number.

 When the sender sends all the frames in window, it checks up

to what sequence number it has received positive
acknowledgement. If all frames are positively acknowledged,
the sender sends next set of frames. If sender finds that it has
received NACK or has not receive any ACK for a particular
frame, it retransmits all the frames after which it does not
receive any positive ACK.

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  Selective Repeat ARQ
 In Go-back-N ARQ, it is assumed that the receiver does not have any buffer space for its
window size and has to process each frame as it comes. This enforces the sender to retransmit
all the frames which are not acknowledged.

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  In Selective-Repeat ARQ, the receiver while
keeping track of sequence numbers, buffers
the frames in memory and sends NACK for
only frame which is missing or damaged.

 The sender in this case, sends only packet for

which NACK is received.

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  High-level Data Link Control
 (HDLC) is a group of communication protocols of the data link layer for
transmitting data between network points or nodes. Since it is a data link
protocol, data is organized into frames. A frame is transmitted via the
network to the destination that verifies its successful arrival. It is a bit -
oriented protocol that is applicable for both point - to - point and
multipoint communications.
 Transfer Modes

 HDLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response mode and
asynchronous balanced mode.

 Normal Response Mode (NRM) − Here, two types of stations are there,
a primary station that send commands and secondary station that can
respond to received commands. It is used for both point - to - point and
multipoint communications.

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  Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) − Here, the configuration is balanced, i.e.
each station can both send commands and respond to commands. It is used for only
point - to - point communications .

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  PPP Protocol
 The PPP stands for Point-to-Point protocol. It is the most commonly used protocol
for point-to-point access. Suppose the user wants to access the internet from the
home, the PPP protocol will be used.

 It is a data link layer protocol that resides in the layer 2 of the OSI model. It is used
to encapsulate the layer 3 protocols and all the information available in the payload
in order to be transmitted across the serial links. The PPP protocol can be used on
synchronous link like ISDN as well as asynchronous link like dial-up. It is mainly
used for the communication between the two devices.

 It can be used over many types of physical networks such as serial cable, phone
line, trunk line, cellular telephone, fiber optic links such as SONET. As the data
link layer protocol is used to identify from where the transmission starts and ends,
so ISP (Internet Service Provider) use the PPP protocol to provide the dial-up
access to the internet

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  Services provided by PPP

 It defines the format of frames through which the transmission occurs.

 It defines the link establishment process. If user establishes a link with a server,
then "how this link establishes" is done by the PPP protocol.
 It defines data exchange process, i.e., how data will be exchanged, the rate of the
exchange.
 The main feature of the PPP protocol is the encapsulation. It defines how
network layer data and information in the payload are encapsulated in the data link
frame.
 It defines the authentication process between the two devices. The authentication
between the two devices, handshaking and how the password will be exchanged
between two devices are decided by the PPP protocol.

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  PPP has two main uses which are given below:
 It is used to transmit the multiprotocol data between the two connected (point-to-
point) computers. It is mainly used in point-to-point devices, for example, routers
are point-to-point devices where PPP protocol is widely used as it is a WAN
protocol not a simple LAN ethernet protocol
 It is widely used in broadband communications having heavy loads and high speed.
For example, an internet operates on heavy load and high speed.

 Frame format of PPP protocol

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  Flag: The flag field is used to indicate the start and end of the frame.
The flag field is a 1-byte field that appears at the beginning and the ending
of the frame. The pattern of the flag is similar to the bit pattern in HDLC,
i.e., 01111110.
 Address: It is a 1-byte field that contains the constant value which is
11111111. These 8 ones represent a broadcast message.
 Control: It is a 1-byte field which is set through the constant value, i.e.,
11000000. It is not a required field as PPP does not support the flow
control and a very limited error control mechanism. The control field is a
mandatory field where protocol supports flow and error control
mechanism.
 Protocol: It is a 1 or 2 bytes field that defines what is to be carried in the
data field. The data can be a user data or other information.
 Payload: The payload field carries either user data or other information.
The maximum length of the payload field is 1500 bytes.
 Checksum: It is a 16-bit field which is generally used for error detection.
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  Medium Access Control Sublayer (MAC sublayer)
 The medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer of the open
system interconnections (OSI) reference model for data transmission.
 It is responsible for flow control and multiplexing for transmission medium. It
controls the transmission of data packets via remotely shared channels. It sends
data over the network interface card.
 MAC Layer in the OSI Model

 The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a layered networking framework

that conceptualizes how communications should be done between heterogeneous
systems. The data link layer is the second lowest layer. It is divided into two
sublayers −

 The logical link control (LLC) sublayer

 The medium access control (MAC) sublayer

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  Functions of MAC Layer
It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper layers of the OSI
network.

It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for transmission
via the physical medium.

It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station, or

groups of destination stations.

It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is to be
transmitted. It determines the channel access methods for transmission.

It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of

collisions.

It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection against
transmission errors.

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  MAC Addresses
 MAC address or media access control address is a unique identifier allotted
to a network interface controller (NIC) of a device. It is used as a network
address for data transmission within a network segment like Ethernet, Wi-
Fi, and Bluetooth.

 MAC address is assigned to a network adapter at the time of

manufacturing. It is hardwired or hard-coded in the network interface card
(NIC). A MAC address comprises of six groups of two hexadecimal digits,
separated by hyphens, colons, or no separators. An example of a MAC
address is 00:0A:89:5B:F0:11.

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  channel allocation in computer
network?
 When there are more than one user who desire to access a shared network
channel, an algorithm is deployed for channel allocation among the
competing users.

 The network channel may be a single cable or optical fiber connecting

multiple nodes, or a portion of the wireless spectrum.
 Channel allocation algorithms allocate the wired channels and bandwidths to
the users, who may be base stations, access points or terminal equipment .
 Channel Allocation Schemes

 Channel Allocation may be done using two schemes −

 Static Channel Allocation

 Dynamic Channel Allocation

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  Static Channel Allocation

 In static channel allocation scheme, a fixed portion of the frequency

channel is allotted to each user. For N competing users, the bandwidth is
divided into N channels using frequency division multiplexing (FDM), and
each portion is assigned to one user.

 This scheme is also referred as fixed channel allocation or fixed channel

assignment.

 In this allocation scheme, there is no interference between the users since

each user is assigned a fixed channel. However, it is not suitable in case of
a large number of users with variable bandwidth requirements

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  Dynamic Channel Allocation

 In dynamic channel allocation scheme, frequency bands are not

permanently assigned to the users. Instead channels are allotted to users
dynamically as needed, from a central pool. The allocation is done
considering a number of parameters so that transmission interference is
minimized.

 This allocation scheme optimises bandwidth usage and results is faster

transmissions.

 Dynamic channel allocation is further divided into centralised and

distributed allocation.

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  Controlled Access Protocols
 In the Controlled access technique, all stations need to consult with one another in order to
find out which station has the right to send the data.

 The controlled access protocols mainly grant permission to send only one node at a time;
thus in order to avoid the collisions among the shared mediums.

 No station can send the data unless it has been authorized by the other stations.

 The protocols lies under the category of Controlled access are as follows:

 Reservation

 Polling

 Token Passing

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  Reservation
 In this method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending the data.

 Time is mainly divided into intervals.

 Also, in each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frame that is sent in
that interval.

 Suppose if there are 'N' stations in the system in that case there are exactly 'N'
reservation minislots in the reservation frame; where each minislot belongs to a
station.

 Whenever a station needs to send the data frame, then the station makes a
reservation in its own minislot.

 Then the stations that have made reservations can send their data after the
reservation frame.

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  Polling
 The polling method mainly works with those topologies where one device
is designated as the primary station and the other device is designated as
the secondary station
 All the exchange of data must be made through the primary device even though
the final destination is the secondary device.

 Thus to impose order on a network that is of independent users, and in order to

establish one station in the network that will act as a controller and periodically
polls all other stations is simply referred to as polling.

 The Primary device mainly controls the link while the secondary device follows
the instructions of the primary device.

 The responsibility is on the primary device in order to determine which device is

allowed to use the channel at a given time.

 Therefore the primary device is always an initiator of the session.

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 Poll Function


 In case if primary devices want to receive the data, then it usually asks the
secondary devices if they have anything to send. This is commonly known
as Poll Function.

 There is a poll function that is mainly used by the primary devices in

order to solicit transmissions from the secondary devices.

 When the primary device is ready to receive the data then it must
ask(poll) each secondary device in turn if it has anything to send.

If the secondary device has data to transmit then it sends the data frame,
otherwise, it sends a negative acknowledgment (NAK) After that in case of
the negative response, the primary then polls the next secondary, in the
same manner until it finds the one with the data to send. When the primary
device received a positive response that means (a data frame), then the
primary devices reads the frame and then returns an acknowledgment
(ACK )frame,.
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  Token Passing
 In the token passing methods, all the stations are organized in the form of a logical
ring. We can also say that for each station there is a predecessor and a successor.

 The predecessor is the station that is logically before the station in the ring; while
the successor is the station that is after the station in the ring. The station that is
accessing the channel now is the current station.

 Basically, a special bit pattern or a small message that circulates from one station
to the next station in some predefined order is commonly known as a token.

 Possessing the token mainly gives the station the right to access the channel and
to send its data.

 When any station has some data to send, then it waits until it receives a token
from its predecessor. After receiving the token, it holds it and then sends its data.
When any station has no more data in order to send then it releases the token and
then passes the token to the next logical station in the ring.

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 Also, the station cannot send the data
until it receives the token again in the next round.
 In Token passing, when a station receives the token and has no data to send then it
just passes the token to the next station.
 The problem that occurs due to the Token passing technique is the duplication of
tokens or loss of tokens. The insertion of the new station, removal of a station, also
needs to be tackled for correct and reliable operation of the token passing technique.

The performance of a token ring is governed by 2 parameters, which are delay and
throughput.

 Delay is a measure of the time; it is the time difference between a packet ready for
transmission and when it is transmitted. Hence, the average time required to send a
token to the next station is a/N.

 Throughput is a measure of the successful traffic in the communication channel.

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  multiple access protocol

 When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to transmit data packets,
the data link control is enough to handle the channel. Suppose there is no
dedicated path to communicate or transfer the data between two devices. In
that case, multiple stations access the channel and simultaneously transmits
the data over the channel. It may create collision and cross talk. Hence, the
multiple access protocol is required to reduce the collision and avoid
crosstalk between the channels.

 For example, suppose that there is a classroom full of students. When a

teacher asks a question, all the students (small channels) in the class start
answering the question at the same time (transferring the data
simultaneously). All the students respond at the same time due to which
data is overlap or data lost. Therefore it is the responsibility of a teacher
(multiple access protocol) to manage the students and make them one
answer.

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  Random Access Protocol
 In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a
channel. In random access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on
another station nor any station control another station. Depending on the
channel's state (idle or busy), each station transmits the data frame. However,
if more than one station sends the data over a channel, there may be a
collision or data conflict. Due to the collision, the data frame packets may be
lost or changed. And hence, it does not receive by the receiver end.

 Following are the different methods of random-access protocols

for broadcasting frames on the channel.

 Aloha
 CSMA
 CSMA/CD
 CSMA/CA
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  ALOHA Random Access Protocol
 It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used
in a shared medium to transmit data. Using this method, any station can
transmit data across a network simultaneously when a data frameset is
available for transmission.

 Aloha Rules

 Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.

 It does not require any carrier sensing.
 Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data
through multiple stations.
 Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no
collision detection.
 It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

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  Pure Aloha

 Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use

Pure Aloha. In pure Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel
without checking whether the channel is idle or not, the chances of
collision may occur, and the data frame can be lost.

 When any station transmits the data frame to a channel, the pure Aloha
waits for the receiver's acknowledgment. If it does not acknowledge the
receiver end within the specified time, the station waits for a random
amount of time, called the backoff time (Tb).

 And the station may assume the frame has been lost or destroyed.
Therefore, it retransmits the frame until all the data are successfully
transmitted to the receiver

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  There are four stations for accessing a shared channel and transmitting data
frames. Some frames collide because most stations send their frames at the same
time. Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 2.2, are successfully transmitted to the
receiver end. At the same time, other frames are lost or destroyed.

 Whenever two frames fall on a shared channel simultaneously, collisions can occur,
and both will suffer damage. If the new frame's first bit enters the channel before
finishing the last bit of the second frame. Both frames are completely finished, and
both stations must retransmit the data frame.

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  Slotted Aloha

 The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency

because pure Aloha has a very high possibility of frame hitting.
 In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval
called slots. So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared channel,
the frame can only be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame
is allowed to be sent to each slot.

 And if the stations are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the
station will have to wait until the beginning of the slot for the next time.
However, the possibility of a collision remains when trying to send a frame
at the beginning of two or more station time slot.

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 IEEE 802.3
Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs.
It was first standardized in 1980s by IEEE 802.3 standard. IEEE 802.3 defines the physical layer
and the medium access control (MAC) sub-layer of the data link layer for wired Ethernet
networks.

Ethernet is classified into two categories: classic Ethernet and switched Ethernet.

Classic Ethernet is the original form of Ethernet that provides data rates between 3 to 10 Mbps.
The varieties are commonly referred as 10BASE-X. Here, 10 is the maximum throughput, i.e. 10
Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and X is the type of medium used.

Most varieties of classic Ethernet have become obsolete in present communication scenario.

A switched Ethernet uses switches to connect to the stations in the LAN. It replaces the repeaters
used in classic Ethernet and allows full bandwidth utilization.

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  IEEE 802.3 Popular Versions
 IEEE 802.3: This was the original standard given for 10BASE-5. It used a thick single coaxial
cable into which a connection can be tapped by drilling into the cable to the core. Here, 10 is
the maximum throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and 5
refers to the maximum segment length of 500m.

 IEEE 802.3a: This gave the standard for thin coax (10BASE-2), which is a thinner variety
where the segments of coaxial cables are connected by BNC connectors. The 2 refers to the
maximum segment length of about 200m (185m to be precise).

 IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for twisted pair (10BASE-T) that uses unshielded twisted
pair (UTP) copper wires as physical layer medium. The further variations were given by IEEE
802.3u for 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4 and 100BASE-FX.

 IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for Ethernet over Fiber (10BASE-F) that uses fiber optic
cables as medium of transmission.

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  Frame Format of IEEE 802.3

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  Preamble: It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for transmission. In case
of classic Ethernet it is an 8 byte field and in case of IEEE 802.3 it is of 7 bytes.

 Start of Frame Delimiter: It is a 1 byte field in a IEEE 802.3 frame that contains an alternating
pattern of ones and zeros ending with two ones.

 Destination Address: It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of destination stations.

 Source Address: It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the sending station.

 Length: It a 7 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.

 Data: This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum size
of data field is 1500 bytes.

 Padding: This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum requirement of 46 bytes.

 CRC: CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection information.

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  IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standards
 IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays
down the architecture and specifications of wireless
LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high
frequency radio waves for connecting the nodes.

 There are several standards of IEEE 802.11 WLANs.

The prominent among them are 802.11, 802.11a,
802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n and 802.11p. All the
standards use carrier-sense multiple access with
collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). Also, they have
support for both centralised base station based as well
as ad hoc networks.
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  IEEE 802.11

 IEEE 802.11 was the original version released in 1997. It provided 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps data
rate in the 2.4 GHz band and used either frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or
direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). It is obsolete now.
 IEEE 802.11a

 802.11a was published in 1999 as a modification to 802.11, with orthogonal frequency

division multiplexing (OFDM) based air interface in physical layer instead of FHSS or DSSS
of 802.11. It provides a maximum data rate of 54 Mbps operating in the 5 GHz band. Besides
it provides error correcting code. As 2.4 GHz band is crowded, relatively sparsely used 5 GHz
imparts additional advantage to 802.11a.

 Further amendments to 802.11a are 802.11ac, 802.11ad, 802.11af, 802.11ah, 802.11ai,

802.11aj etc

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  IEEE 802.11b
 802.11b is a direct extension of the original 802.11 standard that appeared in early 2000. It
uses the same modulation technique as 802.11, i.e. DSSS and operates in the 2.4 GHz band. It
has a higher data rate of 11 Mbps as compared to 2 Mbps of 802.11, due to which it was
rapidly adopted in wireless LANs. However, since 2.4 GHz band is pretty crowded, 802.11b
devices faces interference from other devices.

 Further amendments to 802.11b are 802.11ba, 802.11bb, 802.11bc, 802.11bd and 802.11be.
 IEEE 802.11g

 802.11g was indorsed in 2003. It operates in the 2.4 GHz band (as in 802.11b) and provides a
average throughput of 22 Mbps. It uses OFDM technique (as in 802.11a). It is fully backward
compatible with 802.11b. 802.11g devices also faces interference from other devices operating
in 2.4 GHz band.

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  IEEE 802.11n
 802.11n was approved and published in 2009 that operates
on both the 2.4 GHz and the 5 GHz bands. It has variable
data rate ranging from 54 Mbps to 600 Mbps. It provides a
marked improvement over previous standards 802.11 by
incorporating multiple-input multiple-output antennas
(MIMO antennas).
 IEEE 802.11p

 802.11 is an amendment for including wireless access in

vehicular environments (WAVE) to support Intelligent
Transportation Systems (ITS). They include network
communications between vehicles moving at high speed
and the environment. They have a data rate of 27 Mbps
and operate in 5.9 GHz band.

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  Token Ring in Computer Networks
 A token ring is defined as a communication protocol in a local
area network in which all the stations present in the network
are connected through a ring topology. The token is a small
size frame of 3 bytes. It circulates among the stations in a ring.
The station can only send frames if it has a tfurther
transmission by other stations.

 A ring topology is an architecture of the network in which

devices are oken. After the successful transmission of the
frame, it releases the token for connected in the form of a ring
structure and transmit data to their neighboring node.

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  How Does A Token Ring Work?
 The frame or packet reaches the next station according to the sequence of the ring.

 The frame or packet reaches the next station according to the sequence of the ring.
 Whether the frame contains a message addressed to them is determined by the current node.
If yes, then the message is removed by the node from the frame. If not, then there is an empty
frame(an empty frame is called the token frame).
 A Station that has the token frame, only has the access to transfer the data. If it has data then
insert that data into the token frame otherwise release that token for the next station. The next
station picks up that token frame for further transmission.

 For the avoidance of network congestion, token rings allow only one device to be active at a
time. The above steps are repeated by all the stations present in the token ring network. The
size of the token is 3 bytes and it has a start and end delimiter that defines the beginning and
the ending of the frame. It also has an access control byte within it. 4,500 bytes can be the
maximum possible size of the data portion.

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  Listen Mode
 In listen mode, the data is sent to the next node only when the node listens to the data. There is
only a one-bit delay related to the transfer process.

 Refer to the below image for the listen mode

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  Transmit Mode
 Any data can be discarded by the node in transmit mode. And puts the data onto the network.

 Refer to the below image for the transmit mode

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  By-pass Mode
Whenever the node is down, bypass mode takes place. Using this mode, any data can
be by-pass. No one-bit delay occurs in this mode.

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  Token Bus
 Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a standard for implementing token ring over
virtual ring in LANs. The physical media has a bus or a tree topology and
uses coaxial cables. A virtual ring is created with the nodes/stations and the
token is passed from one node to the next in a sequence along this virtual
ring. Each node knows the address of its preceding station and its
succeeding station. A station can only transmit data when it has the token.
The working principle of token bus is similar to Token Ring.
 Token Passing Mechanism in Token Bus

 A token is a small message that circulates among the stations of a computer

network providing permission to the stations for transmission. If a station
has data to transmit when it receives a token, it sends the data and then
passes the token to the next station; otherwise, it simply passes the token to
the next station.

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  FDDI BASED LAN
 FDDI stands for Fiber Distributed Data Interface. It is a set of ANSI and ISO
guidelines for information transmission on fiber-optic lines in Local Area Network
(LAN) that can expand in run upto 200 km (124 miles). The FDDI convention is
based on the token ring protocol.

 In expansion to being expansive geographically, an FDDI neighborhood region

arranges can support thousands of clients. FDDI is habitually utilized on the spine
for a Wide Area Network(WAN).
 An FDDI network contains two token rings, one for possible backup in case the
essential ring falls flat.
 The primary ring offers up to 100 Mbps capacity. In case the secondary ring isn’t
required for backup, it can also carry information, amplifying capacity to 200
Mbps. The single ring can amplify the most extreme remove; a double ring can
expand 100 km (62 miles).

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  Characteristics of FDDI FDDI gives 100 Mbps of
information throughput.
 FDDI incorporates two interfaces.
 It is utilized to associate the equipment to the ring over long distances.
 FDDI could be a LAN with Station Management.
 Allows all stations to have broken even with the sum of time to transmit
information.
 FDDI defines two classes of traffic viz. synchronous and asynchronous.

 Advantages of FDDI

 Fiber optic cables transmit signals over more noteworthy separations of

approximately 200 km.
 It is conceivable to supply the need to the work stations associated within the chain.
Consequently, based on the prerequisite a few stations are bypassed to supply
speedier benefit to the rest.
 FDDI employments different tokens to make strides organize speed.
 It offers a higher transmission capacity (up to 250 Gbps). Thus, it can handle
information rates up to 100 Mbps.
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  Disadvantages of FDDI

 FDDI is complex. Thus

establishment and support require an
incredible bargain of expertise.
 FDDI is expensive. Typically since
fiber optic cable, connectors and
concentrators are exceptionally
costly.

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  Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware,
are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to
communicate and interact with one another. For example Repeater, Hub,
Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.
 1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to
regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too
weak or corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about
repeaters is that they not only amplify the signal but also regenerate it.
When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at
its star topology connectors connecting following the original strength. It is
a 2-port device.
 2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple
wires coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star
topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data
packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision
domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not
have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads
to inefficiencies and wastage.
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 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean,
boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater
as well as a wiring center. These are used to extend the maximum distance
between nodes.
 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power
supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without
cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between
nodes.
 Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote
management capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network
devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through
the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

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  Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater,
with add on the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC
addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting
two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single
output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

 Types of Bridges

 Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are
completely unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is
added or deleted from the network, reconfiguration of the stations is
unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge
forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is
performed by the source station and the frame specifies which route to
follow. The host can discover the frame by sending a special frame called
the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all
possible paths to the destination.

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  Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is
a data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding
data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors
and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the
switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the
same.
 Types of Switch

 Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do

not offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or
for use as an expansion to a larger network.
 Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as
VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex
networks and allow for centralized management.
 Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but
are typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium
sized networks .

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  Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI
model and are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the
same network segment.
 Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI
model and can route data between different network segments. They are
more advanced than Layer 2 switches and are often used in larger, more
complex networks.
 PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities,
which allows them to supply power to network devices over the same cable
that carries data.
 Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which
are faster than traditional Ethernet speeds.
 Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a
server rack and are suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.

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  Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based
on their IP addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device.
Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the
data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it.

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  Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks
that may work upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents
that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers. A gateway is also
called a protocol converter.

 7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines

features of both bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a
network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets across networks
and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.

 8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect
the computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It
has a unique id that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the
cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer and the router or
modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device.

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 Thank you

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