UNIT 1:

INTRODUCTION TO
MATERIALS
S.K.Bhoite
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering
Syllabus: Classification of materials, structure
of metals, polymers and ceramics, crystal
imperfection, structure & property
relationship, Introduction to composites and
their properties.
 Types of Engineering Materials
Broadly Engineering Materials are classified as:

Engineering Materials

Polymers Composite
s
Metals &Alloys Ceramics

Thermoplasti Thermosettin Elastomers

cPolymers gPolymer
 Types of Engineering Materials
Metals & Alloys are futher classified as:
Metals & Alloys

Ferrous Non-ferrous

Steels Cu-Alloys Al-Alloys

Cast Irons
Ni-Alloys
Plain Carbon Steels White Cast Iron
Alloy Steels Malleable Cast Iron
Grey Cast Iron
S.G. Cast Iron
Chilled Cast Iron
 Types of Engineering Materials
Composites are futher classified as:
Composites

Laminar Particle Fibre

Reinforced Reinforced
 Types of Engineering Materials
Ceramics are futher classified as:
Ceramics

Metal Oxides Nitrides Carbides

Alumina
Beryllia
Zirconia
Glass
Glass Ceramics
 Types of Atomic & Molecular
 Net
Bonds
Decrease in Potential Energy of Atoms
 More Stable Energy Condition

Chemical Bonds Between

Atoms

Primary Secondary
(Strong Bonds) (Weak Bonds

Permanent Dipole
Ionic Covalen Metallic
t Fluctuating Dipol
Ionic Bonds
 Transferof electrons from one
atom to another to produce ions

 Positively
charged cations
bonded with negatively charged
anions by electostatic or
coulombic force of attraction.

 Ionic
bonds are relatively strong
nondirectional bond
Ionic Bonds
Ionic Bonds

Magnesium (Z=12) and Oxygen

(Z=8)
Covalent Bonds
 Sharing of electrons from one
atom to another to produce
ions
 Covalent bonds have localized
direction
 Atoms most commonly share
their outer s and p electrons
with other atoms so that each
atom attains the noble-gas
electron configuration.
Covalent Bonds
Covalent Bonds
 Metallic Bonds
 Valence electrons are not
associated with nucleus of any
particular atom
 Valence electrons form low
density “electron charge cloud”
or “electron gas”
 Metallic bonds are
nondirectional
Metallic Bonds
Permanent Dipole
Bonds
A dipole in a molecule exists
due to asymmetry in its
electron density distribution

A weak intermolecular bonds

are formed between
molecules which possess
permanent dipoles
 These are called as van der
Waals bonds
Permanent Dipole
Bonds
Fluctuating Dipole
Bonds
A very weak electric dipole
bonding take place among
atoms due to asymmetry in
its electron density
distribution around nuclei.

 Sinceelectron density is
continuously changing with
time bonds are termed as
fluctuating dipole bond
Crystal Structures

Space Unit Cell

Lattice
 Crystal Systems
1.Cubic Crystal
Bravais Lattice
System
Crystallographical
 Simple
Axial Length
 Body-Centred
a=b=c
 Face-centred
Crystallographical
Angles:
α=β=γ=90°
 Crystal
Systems
1. Bravais Lattice of Cubic
Crystal System

Simpl BCC
e

FCC
 Crystal Systems
2.Tetragonal Crystal
System Bravais
Crystallographical Lattice
Axial Length
 Simple
a=b≠c
 Body-
Crystallographical Centred
Angles:
α=β=γ=90°
 Crystal
Systems
2. Bravais Lattice of Tetragonal
Crystal System

Simpl BCC
e
 Crystal Systems
3.Orthorhombic
Bravais Lattice
Crystal System
Crystallographical
 Simple
Axial Length
 Body-Centred
a≠ b≠c
 Face-centred
Crystallographical
 Base Centred
Angles:
α=β=γ=90°
 Crystal
Systems
3. Bravais Lattice of Orthorhombic Cryst
System

BCC
Simpl
e

FCC Base
 Crystal Systems
4.Rhombohydral
Crystal System Bravais
Crystallographical Lattice
Axial Length
 Simple
a= b=c

Crystallographical
Angles:
α=β=γ ≠ 90°
 Crystal
Systems
4. Bravais Lattice of
Rhombohydral
 Crystal Systems
5.Hexagonal Crystal
System Bravais
Crystallographical Lattice
Axial Length
 Simple
a= b ≠ c

Crystallographical
Angles:
α=β= 90° γ=1200
 Crystal
Systems
5. Bravais Lattice of Hexagonal
Crystal System
 Crystal Systems
6.Monoclinic Crystal
System Bravais
Crystallographical Lattice
Axial Length
 Simple
a≠ b ≠ c
 Base
Crystallographical Centred
Angles:
α=γ= 90° ≠ β
 Crystal
Systems
6. Bravais Lattice of Monoclinic
Crystal System

Simpl Base
e Centred
 Crystal Systems
7.Triclinic Crystal
System Bravais
Crystallographical Lattice
Axial Length
 Simple
a≠b≠c

Crystallographical
Angles:
α≠β≠γ
 Crystal
Systems
7. Bravais Lattice of Triclinic

Simpl
e
Crystal System and Bravais
Lattices
S. System Axial Lengths and Angles Bravais
N. Lattice
1 Cubic Three equal axes at right angels, Simple
Body-Centred
a=b=c, α=β=γ=90° Face-centred
2 Tetragonal Three axes at right angles,Two equal, Simple
Body-Centred
a=b≠c, α=β=γ=90°
3 Orthorhombic Three unequal axes at right angles Simple
Body-Centred
a ≠b≠c, α=β=γ=90° Base-Centred
Face-centred
4 Rhombohedra Three equal axes, equally inclined, Simple
l a=b=c α=β=γ≠90°
5 Hexagonal Two equal coplanar axes at 1200, third axis at Simple
right angles,
a=b=c, α=β=90° γ=120 0
6 Monoclinic Three unequal axes, one pair not at right Simple
angles, Base-Centred
a≠b≠c, α= γ =90° β≠ 90°
7 Triclinic Three unequal axes, unequally inclined and Simple
none at right angles,
a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90°
Crystal Structure in
Metals
Majority of Metals falls in
either of the following crystal
structure

 BCC (Body Centered Cubic)

 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)
 HCP (Hexagonal Close
Packed)
 Crystal Structure in
Metals
BCC (Body Centered Cubic)

Examples:α-iron, Mo, W, V, Ta, Cr, Na,

K
Crystal Structure in
Metals
BCC (Body Centered Cubic)
 Crystal Structure in
Metals
 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)

Examples:γ-iron, Cu,Au,Ag,Al,Pb, Ni,

Pt
Crystal Structure in
Metals
 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)
Crystal Structure in
Metals
 HCP (Hexagonal Close
Packed)

Examples: Mg,Zn,Be,Cd,Co,Zr,Ti
Parameters of Unit Cells
 Number of Atoms per Unit Cell

 Atomic Packing Factor

 Co-ordination Number

 Planar Atomic Density

 Linear Atomic Density

Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. BCC:
No of Atoms at corners:8
No of Atoms at faces: 0
No of Atoms at center: 1
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 8/8 +0/2+1/1
=2
Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. FCC:
No of Atoms at corners:8
No of Atoms at faces: 6
No of Atoms at center: 0
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 8/8 +6/2+0/1
=4
Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. HCP:
No of Atoms at corners:12
No of Atoms at faces: 2
No of Atoms at center: 3
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 12/6 +2/2+3/1
=6
Parameters of Unit Cells
Co-ordination Number :- The number of
nearest equidistant neighboring atoms
surrounding an atom under consideration
is called co-ordination Number (or
Ligancy)
BCC:8 FCC: 12 HCP:12

APF :- The fractional amount of volume

occupied by atoms in unit cell is called
atomic packing factor (APF)
BCC:0.68 FCC: 0.74 HCP:0.74
 Planar Atomic Density
1.For BCC
a)(100) :1/a2

b)(110) : 1.414/a2

c)(111) : 0.577/a2
 Planar Atomic Density
1.For FCC
a)(100) :2/a2

b)(110) :1.414 /a2

c)(111) : 2.31/a2
 Linear Atomic Density
1.For BCC
a)[100] :1/a

b)[110] : 0.707/a

c)[111] : 1.155/a
 Linear Atomic Density
1.For FCC
a)(100) :1/a

b)(110) : 1.414 /a

c)(111) : 0.577/√3a
Maximum PAD and LAD
Crystal Planar Atomic Linear Atomic
Structure Density Density

BCC (110) [111]

FCC (111) [110]

Imperfections in crystals

Crystal are like people. It is the

defects that tend to make them
interesting

Colin Humphreys
Imperfections in crystals
 Perfect crystals do not exist; even the
best crystals have 1ppb defects.
 Imperfections or Defect:
imperfection or "mistake" in the regular
periodic arrangement of atoms in a crystal
 Defects, even in very small
concentrations, can have a dramatic impact
on the properties of a material.
 In many situations defects are desirable.
Imperfections in crystals
Lattice Vibrations
Zero Dimension Defects (Point
Defect)
 Impurities
 Vacancies
One Dimension Defects (Line Defect)
 Edge Dislocation
 Screw Dislocation
Two Dimension Defects (Surface
Defect)
 Grain Boundaries
 Twin Boundaries
 Stacking Faults
 Low Angle Grain Boundaries
 Zero Dimension Defects (Point
Defect)

Vacancy Interstitial
Non-ionic
crystals Impurity
Self Interstitial
Point
Defects Substitutional
Ionic Frenkel defect
crystals

Schottky defect
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)
o Vacancy
A vacancy is referred to an atomic site from where
the atom is missing.
o Impurity
An impurity is referred to an foreign atom which
substitutes for or replaces a parent atom in the
crystal (substitutiona impurity) or occupies the
void pace in the parent crystal (interstitial
impurity).
o Self Interstitial
Self interstitial defect occurs when an atom of
lattice gets trapped inside the void space in the
crystal.
 Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)

vacancy Interstitial
impurity

Substitutional
impurity
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)

Self-Interstitials:
"extra" atoms of same lattice is positioned
between atomic sites.

self-
interstitial
Defects in ionic solids

Frenkel defect

Cation vacancy
+
cation interstitial

Schottky
defect
Cation vacancy
+
anion vacancy
How point defects are formed?
 Plastic Deformation

 High Energy Particle Irradiation

 Temperature
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect):
Effect on Properties

1. They increase the hardness and tensile

strength due to distortion of the lattice which
hinders the motion of moving dislocation
responsible for plastic deformation.

Tensile Stress
Fields
Compressive Stress
Tensile Stress
Field
Field
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect):
Effect on Properties

2. Vacancies increase the kinetic of diffusion and

phase transformation. This is because by
successive jumps of atoms, it is possible for a
vacancy to move in the lattice.

3. They decrease corrosion resistance of crystal

because of increase in potential energy of the
lattice.

4. They increase the electrical resistance because

of distortion in lattice
One Dimension Defects
(Line Defect) :Dislocations

These defects produce lattice distortions

centered about a line.

The Main Two Types of Dislocations:

Edge Dislocation

Screw Dislocation
 Edge Dislocation

Dislocations are thought of as extra lattice

planes inserted in the crystal or
missing of plane of atoms
Edge Dislocation
Edge Dislocation

Edge Dislocation
Edge Dislocation

Edge Dislocation
Missing half plane A Defect
An extra half plane…

…or a missing half plane

 What kind of
defect is this?

A line defect?

Or a planar defect?
Extra half plane No extra plane!
Missing plane No missing plane!!!
An extra half plane…

Edge
Dislocation

…or a missing half plane

 e h sid ds
n e

l w in n
ea
l a ct

t a t l y ne e
p

fe a
n g fe

de ve
i e

ct .
cr rup pla d
n a d

a
l e
y no t
a b If a

t
p is
b r u
f a
o
ys

o le a n
wh a n e c
e h e p l c t
Th o f t d ef e
edg e a s a
t he r ed
Only e conside
b

This is a line defect called an

EDGE DISLOCATION
 Screw Dislocation

The screw dislocations are formed by shear stresses

which are applied in the regions of perfect crystal
which have been separated by a cutting plane

It can be imagined as being produced by cutting the

crystal partway through with a knife and then
shearing one part of the crystal w.r.t. the other
parallel to the cut.

These shear stresses create a region of distorted

crystal lattice in the form of a spiral ramp of distorted
atoms.
Screw Dislocation
 in e
n L
o
ti t
lo ca
D is
w
S c re b || t
b




One Dimension Defects
(Line Defect) :Dislocations

Dislocations are formed due to:

Plastic Deformation

Solidification

Vacancy Condensation
 Burgers vector

Johannes Martinus
BURGERS

Burger’s vector Burgers vector

Burgers Vector

Burgers vector, b: is a measure of lattice

distortion and is measured as a distance along
the close packed directions in the lattice.

Burgers vector indicate amount and direction

of shift of the lattice due to dislocation.

Burgers vector is found by Burgers circuit

method.
 S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 12 13 14 15 16
F 1
1
9
2
8
3
7 A closed
4
6 Burgers Circuit
5
5 in an ideal
4 crystal 6
7
3
8
2
1 9

16 15 14 13 12 1 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1
F b 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1
1
12 13 14 15 16

9 S 1
2
8
3
7 
Map the same 4
6
5
Burgers circuit on a 5

4 real crystal 6
7
3
8
2
1 9

16 15 14 13 12 1 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1

RHFS convention
 in e
n L
o
ti t
lo ca
D is
w
S c re b || t
b




Difference Between
Edge and Screw
Dislocation
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

Dislocation is created Dislocations are formed by

1 shear stresses which are
by insertion of extra
applied in the regionsof
half plane in the lattice perfect crystal which have
been separated by a
cutting plane

2
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

3 Burgers vector is Burgers vector is

perpendicular to the parallel to the
dislocation dislocation

In positive Edge In positive Screw

4 Dislocation Extra Dislocation Left-handed
half plane above spiral ramp
the slip plane

b parallel to t
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

In negative Edge In negative Screw

5
Dislocation Extra Dislocation Right-
half plane below handed spiral ramp
the slip plane

b antiparallel to t

The lattice above the

6 Atomic planes
positive dislocation is
surrounding the
in compression and
distorsion undergoes
lattice below is in
shear distortion
tension. Opposite in
negative dislocation
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

During plastic During plastic

7
deformation, direction deformation, direction
of dislocation line is of dislocation line is
parallel to slip direction perpendicular to slip
direction

At elevated At elevated
8 temperature,
temperature,
dislocation leave slip dislocation leave slip
plane by the processes plane by the processes
of dislocation climb of cross-slip
Stress Concentration at
Dislocations

Elastic strain field associated with an

edge dislocation
Line energy of a dislocation

Elastic energy per unit length of a

dislocation line

1
E  b 2

2
=Shear modulus of the crystal
b=Length of the Burgers vector

Unit: J m1
Effect of Dislocations on Properties
Dislocations have a strong effect on:
Deformation characteristics and
mechanical properties
There is extra energy due to the
dislocation. The energy associated with
them is given by
E = b2 / 2
Recrystallization temperature

Higher the dislocation density,

lower will be recrystallization
temperature
Effect of Dislocations on Properties
Dislocations have a strong effect on:
Phase transformation characteristics

Electical properties
Higher the dislocation density,
higher will be electrical resistance.
Corrosion resistance

Higher the dislocation density, lower will

be corrosion resistance.
Two Dimension Defects
(Surface Defect)

Grain Boundaries

Twin Boundaries

Stacking Faults

Low Angle Grain Boundaries

Grain Boundaries
Grain Boundary is a defect which
separate grain of different orientation
from each other in polycrystalline
material
Grain
Boundary

Grain 2
Grain 1
Grain Boundaries
Grain Boundaries
Grain Boundaries
Grain Boundaries

Photomicrograph an iron
chromium alloy. 100X.
Some of important effect of Grain boundaries
 As the atomic packing in grain boundaries is lower
than within the grains, atomics diffusion takes
place more rapidly than in the grain.

 Because of their high energy grain boundaries

serve as preferential sites for solid state reactions
such as diffusion phase transformations etc.
Some of important effect of Grain boundaries

 At room temperature grain boundaries also restrict

plastic flow by making it difficult for the movement
of dislocations in the grain boundary region.

 High angle grain boundaries are boundaries of high

surface energy (e.g. grain boundary of Cu has a
surface energy of about 600 mJ/m2 as compare to
its twin boundary energy of 25mJ/ m2). Hence grain
boundaries are more suspectitable for corrosion.
 Grain boundaries affect on mech properties.
Low Angle Grain Boundaries

Grain Boundary: low and high angle

One grain orientation can be obtained by
rotation of another grain across the grain
boundary about an axis through an angle
If the angle of rotation is high, it is called a
high angle grain boundary
If the angle of rotation is low it is called a low
angle grain boundary
Low Angle Grain Boundaries

They are of two

types :
Tilt boundary

Twist boundary
Low Angle Grain Boundary: tilt and twist
One grain orientation can be obtained by
rotation of another grain across the grain
boundary about an axis through an angle

If the axis of rotation lies in the boundary plane

it is called tilt boundary

If the angle of rotation is perpendicular to the

boundary plane it is called a twist boundary
Low angle tilt boundary :
Tilt boundary consists of edge dislocation lying
one above theother in the boundary.
bB
C
C B
Grain 1
b 
sin
2h 2
Grain 2 
 Or 2 2h
approximately

A b
tan 
h
Low Angle Twist Boundary
Here the angle of rotation is perpendicular
to the boundary plane y

Can be represented by an array of screw

dislocations

The angle of twist is given by:

α=b/h
Low Angle Twist Boundary

These defects affect :

Plastic deformation
Mechanical propertises
Recrystallization Temperature
Electical Propertises
Corrosion Resistance
Twin Boundary

Twin Boundary
Atoms on one side of the
boundary are in mirror
positions with respect to
atoms on the other side
of the boundary
Twin Boundary

The volume of material which has an

orientation similar to the mirror image of the
matrix orientation is called a twin.

The mirror is called the twinning plane or

composition plane.

Twins may form during solidification,

deformation or during annealing.
Twin Boundary
Stacking Faults

Plane A

Plane B
Plane A
Stacking Faults

Plane A

Plane B
Plane C
Stacking Faults

C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
Sequence with Stackin
Perfect Sequence
Fault
Stacking Faults

C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
Intrinsic Fault Extrinsic Fault
Stacking Faults

C A
B C
A B
C Stacking A HCP
B fault B
A A
C C
B FCC B FCC
A A
 Effect of Stacking Faults

A small surface energy is associated with

stacking fault, in the range of 8 to 80
mJ/m2 except in few metals like Nickel
(150 mJ/m2)Aluminium (200 mJ/m2)etc.

The metal with low stacking fault energy

stain harden more rapidly, twin easily on
annealing than the metals with high
stacking fault energy.
Which is the most significant defect?
Answer: The line defect (edge dislocation
or screw dislocation)
Which is the second most significant defect?

Photomicrograph an iron
chromium alloy. 100X.
Plastic Deformation
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION

F Linear-
elastic

Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-

elastic

 PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)

linear linear
elastic
Plastic means permanent! elastic

plastic
Single Crystal Slip

Slip in Zinc
single crystal
specimen
after
tensioned
force

Small step of
slip on the
surface
parallel to
one another
 Plastic Deformation by Slip
Plastic deformation by slip occurs by movement or
sliding of one plane of atoms over the other.
Slip occurs when the shear stress resolved on slip
plane and along slip direction exceeds a critical
value (CRSS). The atoms move an integral number of
atomic distances along the slip plane and a setp is
produced.
 Plastic Deformation by Slip

 Generally the slip

plane is the plane of
greatest atomic
density and the slip
direction is the close
packed direction on
the slip lane having
maximum linear
atomic density.

 Since the planes of

greatest atomic
density are also the
most widely spaced
planes in the crystal
structure, the
resistance to slip is
generally less for
these planes than for
any other set of
planes.
Slip System

◦Slip plane - plane allowing easiest

slippage
Highest planar densities
Wide interplanar spacing

◦Slip direction - direction of

movement
Highest linear densities

◦Slip Systems:
No of Slip Planes x No of Slip
Directions
Slip System in BCC
BCC Slip occurs on {110} planes
(6 Planes)
Close-packed in <111> directions
(2 Directions)
Slip System:{110}<111>

=> total of 12 (6 X2) slip systems

Slip System in BCC (Other
Systems)
BCC Slip also occurs on {112} planes
(12 Planes)

Close-packed in <111> directions

(1 Directions)

Slip System:{112}<111>

=> total of 12 (12 X1) slip systems in BCC

Slip System in BCC (Other
Systems)
BCC Slip also occurs on {123} planes
(24 Planes)

Close-packed in <111> directions

(1 Directions)

Slip System:{123}<111>

=> total of 24 (24X1) slip systems in BCC

Slip System in FCC
FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes
(4 Planes)
Close-packed in <110> directions
(3 Directions)
Slip System:{111}<110>
=> total of 12 (4 X3) slip systems in FCC
Slip System in HCP
FCC Slip occurs on {0001} planes
(1 Plane)
Close-packed in <1120> directions
(3 Directions)
Slip System:{0001}< 1120 >

=> total of 3 (1 X3) slip systems in HCP

Slip Systems

Structure Slip plane Slip Slip systems

direction

HCP {0001} <1120> 1X3=3

FCC {111} <110> 4X3=12

BCC {110} <111> 6X2=12

{211} <111> 12X1=12

{321} <111> 24X1=24

Resolved Shear Stress
Let tensile force P been applied
Along axis of crystal
Let Ø be angle between

tensile axis And normal to slip plane

Let λ be angle between tensile

axis and Slip direction

Slip plane area=A/cos Ø
Resolve shear force along

Slip direction=P cos λ

Resolved Shear Stress=σ cos Ø cosλ
Schmid’s Law
Resolved Shear Stress=σ cos Φ cos λ
Schmid postulated that:
It is the shear stress resolved along the slip direction on
the slip plane that initiates plastic deformation.

 Yield will begin on a slip system when the shear stress

on this system first reaches a critical value (critical
resolved shear stress, CRSS), independent of the tensile
stress or any other normal stress on the lattice plane.
RESOLVED SHEAR STRESS
  

R = 0 R = 0 R =/2
=90° =90° =45°
=45°

 maximum at  =  = 45º
• Maximum possible R = /2; thus y = 2CRSS
Significance of CRSS
 Slip begins within the crystal when the
shear stress on the slip plane in slip
direction reaches and exceeds CRSS.
 All slip systems in crystal do not have
same resolved shear stress because of
different orientation along an axis. As the
applied tensile stress is increases from
zero, deformation will be initiated first on
that slip system for which the resolved
shear stress is a maximum and so
reaches the CRSS value first.
 CRSS is mainly depends on the type
of bonding, purity, alloying elements
present in the crystal and temperature. It
is independent of the orientation of the
applied stress and slip direction.
Significance of CRSS
 The value of CRSS is constant for
given crystal. Essentially, CRSS is
the yield stress of single crystal
and is equivalent to the yield
stress of a polycrystalline metal or
alloy determined by a stress –
strain tensile test curve.

 CRSS increases significantly with

increase in impurities or alloying
elements.
Resolved Shear Stress
Example 1:Determine the tensile stress that is applied
along the [110] axis of a silver crystal to cause slip on
the (1 1 1)[011] system. CRSS is 6Mpa. (Ans: 14.7Mpa)

Example 2: Calculate the CRSS for Zn single crystal.

Given:
1.The slip plane is oriented at 300 to the tensile
axis.
2.The probable slip directions make angles of
300,450 and 840 with the tensile axis.
3. Slip starts when tensile stress reaches
23kg/mm2.(Ans:1.2kg/mm2)
Dislocations & plastic deformation

 Theoretical CRSS requires to produce

plastic deformation is in the range of
2 – 20 GN/m2 for the most of metals.
 The experimental values of critical
resolved shear stress (CRSS) for
initiating plastic deformation are
varies from 2 to 20 MN/m2, these
values are very much lower than
( about 1000 to 10,000 times)
theoretical values.
 This discrepancy can be explained
only on the basis of the presence of
dislocations in real crystals.
Dislocations & plastic deformation

Experimental measurements showed that at

room temperature the major source for plastic
deformation is the dislocation motion through the crystal
lattice
Dislocations & plastic deformation
Dislocations & plastic deformation
Dislocations & plastic deformation

 When a shear stress is resolved on the slip

plane in the crystal, dislocation on it move.
 As shown in figure, the dislocation moves across
the slip plane and leaves a step when it comes
out at the surface of the crystal.
 As the dislocations sweep through the crystal,
each one of them causes a displacement of the
top part of the crystal w.r.t. the bottom by a
distance equal to the magnitude of its Burgers
vector.
Dislocations & plastic deformation

 Unlike perfect crystal model of plastic

deformation, plastic deformation does
not occur by the simultaneous
displacement of all the atoms in the slip
plane. the dislocation moves in a
sequential fashion, occupying successive
position during its motion as shown.
 During each step of the motion, the
displacement of the atoms surrounding
the dislocation is only fraction of an
interatomics distance and not a full one,
as in the case of the perfect crystal. A
relatively small amount of stress is
required for slip by this process since
only a small group of a atoms slips over
each other at any instant.
Strain-Hardening or Work
Hardening
Rotation of slip plane Theory

Strain Hardening :- Strain hardening means increase

in hardenss and strength during plastic deformation
and more and more stress is required to continue
further plastic deformation.
Strain-Hardening or Work
Hardening
Rotation of slip plane Theory
When a tensile stress of 6T is applied on
the crystal, it gets resolved on slip plane
and along slip direction. This resolved
shear stress is given by
Ǿ
resolved = 6T cos.cos

where  is angle between tensile axis and

slip direction and Ǿ is angle between tensile
axis and normal to the slip plane.
Strain-Hardening or Work
Hardening
Rotation of slip plane Theory
When 6T on the crystal is
gradually increased, resolved
increases and a stage comes
such that shear stress exceeds
CRSS of that crystal.
Under this situation, slip starts.
Slip occurs by sliding of planes
one over the other.
 If the ends of crystal are not
constrained, sliding of planes
continue all along the length.
Strain-Hardening or Work
Hardening
Rotation of slip plane Theory
However, with the constrained
ends, the slip planes not only
slide over the other but also
rotates w.r.t. axis of loading and
angle  i.e. angle between the
slip direction and the tensile
axis become less and less
during plastic deformation. This
is shown in second figure.
Rotation of the Crystal
Lattice
Rotation of the Crystal
Lattice
The slip direction rotates towards the
tensile axis
Strain-Hardening or Work
Hardening
Rotation of slip plane Theory
 If the value of  at the beginning is less
than 450, then as  decreases, the value
of resolved as given by 6T cos  cos θ
decreases.
 For plastic deformation, 
resolved should be
higher than CRSS. Therefore 6T cos  cos
θ must be increased in such a way that
resolved is all the time higher than CRSS
for continuous plastic deformation.
 This means material becomes more and
more hard and to deform it, higher and
higher stress is required. This
phenomenon is know as ‘strain
hardening’.
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
 Approximately as high as 1000 dislocation may lie
on slip plane.
 As the dislocations are moved by applying stress,
their density increases (i.e. they regenerates) if
they come across any obstacle such as impurity
particle, precipitate particle, local stress field in the
lattice, grain boundary etc.)
 In the presence of such obstacles, the dislocation
assumes the positions as shown in fig. with
increasing values of stress.
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory

Obstacle

Dislocation
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
Strain-Hardening or Work
Hardening
Dislocation Theory
Frank-Read source - A pinned dislocation
that, under an applied stress, produces
additional dislocations. This source of
regeneration of dislocation is call
Frank – Reed source of multiplication of
dislocations
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory

Dislocations entangle
with one another

During plastic deformation

Dislocation motion becomes
more difficult.

0.9 m

Ti alloy after cold working:

Strain-Hardening or Work
Hardening
Dislocation Theory
 Thus by Frank Reed source of
multiplication of dislocation,
dislocation density increase in
crystal during plastic deformation.
 With increased number of
dislocations more stress is required
to move them because of
interference of these dislocations to
each other i.e. stress has to be
increased continuously to move the
continuously increasing
dislocations.
Strain-Hardening or Work
Hardening
Dislocation Theory
 The shear stress  to move a
dislocation in a crystal with
dislocation density ρ is given by
 = o + A √ρ
where o is the stress required to
move a dislocation in the crystal
in the absence of other
dislocations and A is constant.
This equation shows  increase as
ρ increases. This is work
hardening or strain hardening.
Plastic Deformation by
Twinning
 Second important plastic deformation mechanism which
can occur in metals is twinning.
 In this process a part of the atomic lattice is deformed so
that it forms a mirror image of the undeformed lattice
next to it.
Plastic Deformation by
Twinning
The crystallographic plane of symmetry
between the undeformed and deformed
parts of metal lattice is called the twining
plane.
Plastic Deformation by Twinning
Twining occurs in specific direction and on
certain planes.
Structure Typical Twin plane Twin direction
examples

BCC  - Fe, Ta (112) [111]

FCC Ag, Au, Cu (111) [112]

HCP Zn, Cd, Mg, (10 12 ) [1011]

Ti
Plastic Deformation by
Twinning
Unlike slip, in twining the atoms move
distances proportional to their distance from
the twining plane.

 Twining only involves a small fraction of the

total volume of the metal crystal and so the
amount of overall deformation that can be
produced by twining is small.
Plastic Deformation by
Twinning
 Two Types of Twinning:
Mechanical twins
Annealing twins

 Mechanical twins are produced in BCC or HCP

metals under conditions of rapid rate of loading
(shock loading) and low temperature.

 Annealing Twins are observed in FCC metals

Plastic Deformation by
Twinning
Twining is not a dominant deformation
mechanism in metals which posses many
possible slip systems.

Twining generally occurs when the slip

systems are restricted or when twining
stress is lower than the stress for slip.
Plastic Deformation by
Twinning
 The important role of twining in plastic
deformation comes not from the strain produced
by the twining process but from the fact that
orientation changes resulting from twining may
place new slip systems in a favourable orientation
w.r.t. the stress axis so that additional slip can take
place.

 Thus twining is important in the overall

deformation of metals with a low number of slip
systems, such as the HCP metals.
 Slip Vs Twinning
Slip Twinning

1 Slip is shear deformation In twinning, a part of the atomic

process that moves atoms on lattice is deformed so that it
one plane (slip plane) relative to form a mirror image of the
their initial positions by many underformed lattice next to it.
interatomic distances in
particular direction (slip
direction)
 Slip Twinning

2
In slip, atoms move a whole In twinning, the atoms move
number of interatomic spacing. fractional amounts depending
on their distance from the
twinning plane.
3
In slip, there is very little change In twinning, there is complete
in lattice orientation. change in orientation of
deformed lattice w.r.t.
undeformed lattice.
4 Stress required to start slip is Stress required to start
lower. twinning is higher.
 Slip Twinning

5 Stress required to propagate slip Stress required to propagate

is higher because of the twinning is lower.
interaction of moving
dislocations with obstacles.
6 Under microscope slip appears Under microscope twinning
as thin lines. appear as broad lines or bands.

7 Slip is a dominant mechanism for Twinning is not dominant

plastic deformation. mechanism for plastic
deformation but indirectly it
assists the slip by creating new
slip systems favorable for
plastic deformation.
Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals

The boundaries between the grain in a

polycrystalline metals are a region of disturbed
lattice of few atomic diameters width.

The crystallographic orientation changes

abruptly in passing from one grain to the next
across the grain boundary.

Grain boundaries provide obstacles to

dislocation motion. Hence, dislocations are
stopped by a grain boundary and pile up against it.
Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals
• Grain boundaries are barriers to slip.

• Smaller grain size: more barriers to slip.

slip plane B
ain
gr
grain A
gra
in
bo
un
da
ry
 Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals

• Slip planes & directions
(, ) change from one
crystal to another.

• R will vary from one

crystal to another.

• The crystal with the

largest R yields first.

• Other (less favorably

300 m
oriented) crystals
yield (slip) later.
Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals
Since contact at the grain boundaries must be maintain, the
grains gets sheared relative to each other during plastic
deformations.
This creates more slip system to operate.
The rotation into the axis of tension brings other grains,
originally less favorably oriented, into a position where they
can now deform.
As deformation and rotation proceed , the individual grains
tend to elongate the direction of deformation
Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals

In the presence of grain boundary. Dislocation

movement along the slip planes and elongation of
the grains make plastic deformation more and more
difficult.

Piled dislocations increase further resistance

to plastic deformation.

Thus grain boundaries increases strength and

hardness of polycrystalline material by plastic
deformation.
 Books Recommended

 Material science and metallurgy for

Engineers by Dr V.D.Kodgire