Relational Data Model and

Languages
 Relational model can be represented as a table with columns and
rows. Each row is known as a tuple and column as an attribute.

 Relational instance: In the relational database system, the

relational instance is represented by a finite set of tuples. Relation
instances do not have duplicate tuples.

 Relational schema: A relational schema contains the name of the

relation and name of all columns or attributes.

 Relational key: In the relational key, each row has one or more
attributes. It can identify the row in the relation uniquely.

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 Relational Data Model and
Languages
 Example: STUDENT Relation
NAME ROLL_NO PHONE_NO ADDRESS AGE

Ram 14795 7305758992 Noida 24

Shyam 12839 9026288936 Delhi 35

Laxman 33289 8583287182 Gurugram 20

Mahesh 27857 7086819134 Ghaziabad 27

Ganesh 17282 9028 9i3988 Delhi 40

 In the given table, NAME, ROLL_NO, PHONE_NO, ADDRESS,

and AGE are the attributes.
 The instance of schema STUDENT has 5 tuples.
 t3 = <Laxman, 33289, 8583287182, Gurugram, 20>

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 Properties of Relations
 Name of the relation is distinct from all other relations.

 Each relation cell contains exactly one atomic (single)

value

 Each attribute contains a distinct name

 Attribute domain has no significance

 Tuple has no duplicate value

 Order of tuple can have a different sequence

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 Integrity Constraints
 Integrity constraints are a set of rules.

 It is used to maintain the quality of information.

 Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating,

and other processes have to be performed in such a
way that data integrity is not affected.

 Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental

damage to the database.

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 Types of Integrity Constraints

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 Domain Constraints
 Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid
set of values for an attribute.

 The data type of domain includes string, character, integer,

time, date, currency, etc. The value of the attribute must be
available in the corresponding domain.
Example:

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 Entity integrity constraints
 The entity integrity constraint states that primary key value
can't be null.
 This is because the primary key value is used to identify
individual rows in relation and if the primary key has a null
value, then we can't identify those rows.
 A table can contain a null value other than the primary key
field.
Example:

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 Referential Integrity Constraints
 A referential integrity constraint is specified between two
tables.
 In the Referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key in
Table 1 refers to the Primary Key of Table 2, then every
value of the Foreign Key in Table 1 must be null or be
available in Table 2. Example:

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 Key Constraints
 Keys are the entity set that is used to identify an entity
within its entity set uniquely.
 An entity set can have multiple keys, but out of which one
key will be the primary key. A primary key can contain a
unique value in the relational table. Example:

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 Relational Calculus
 Relational calculus is a non-procedural query language. In
the non-procedural query language, the user is
notconcerned with the details of how to obtain the end
results.
 The relational calculus tells what to do but never explains
how to do. There are two types of relational calculus.

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 Tuple Relational Calculus
 The tuple relational calculus is specified to select the
tuples in a relation.

 In TRC, filtering variable uses the tuples of a relation.

 The result of the relation can have one or more tuples.

Notation:

{T | P (T)} or {T | Condition (T)}

Where, T is the resulting tuples and

P(T) is the condition used to fetch T.

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 Example of Tuple Relational Calculus
1. { T.name | Author(T) AND T.article = 'database' }
OUTPUT: This query selects the tuples from the AUTHOR
relation. It returns a tuple with 'name' from Author who has
written an article on 'database'.
TRC (tuple relation calculus) can be quantified. In TRC, we can
use Existential (∃) and Universal Quantifiers (∀).
2. { R| ∃T ∈ Authors(T.article='database' AND
R.name=T.name)}
Output: This query will yield the same result as the previous
one.
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 Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)
 The second form of relation is known as Domain relational
calculus. In domain relational calculus, filtering variable
uses the domain of attributes.

calculus. It uses logical connectives 𝖠 (and), ∨ (or) and ┓

 Domain relational calculus uses the same operators as tuple

(not).
 It uses Existential (∃) and Universal Quantifiers (∀) to
bind
the variable.
Notation:
{ a1, a2, a3, ..., an | P (a1, a2, a3, ... ,an)}
Where
a1, a2 are attributes
P stands for formula built by inner attributes
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 Example of Domain Relational Calculus
(DRC)

1.{< article, page, subject > | ∈ Javatpoint 𝖠 subject = 'database'}

Output: This query will yield the article, page, and subject from the
relation javatpoint, where the subject is a database.

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 Structured Query Language (SQL)
 SQL is used to perform operations on the records stored in the
database such as updating records, deleting records, creating
and modifying tables, views, etc.
 SQL is just a query language not a database. To perform SQL
queries, we need to install any database, for example, Oracle,
MySQL, MongoDB, PostGre SQL, SQL Server, DB2, etc.
 SQL stands for Structured Query Language.
 It is designed for managing data in a relational
database management system (RDBMS).
 It is pronounced as S-Q-L or sometime See-Qwell.
 SQL is a database query language, it is used for
database
creation, deletion, fetching rows, and modifying rows, etc.
 SQL is based on relational algebra and tuple
relational calculus.
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 Need of SQL
 To create new databases, tables and views

 To insert records in a database

 To update records in a database

 To delete records from a database

 To retrieve data from a database

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 Functions of SQL
 With SQL, we can query our database in several ways, using
English-like statements.
 With SQL, a user can access data from a relational
database management system.
 It allows the user to describe the data.
 It allows the user to define the data in the
database and manipulate it when needed.
 It allows the user to create and drop database and table.

 It allows the user to create a view, stored procedure, function in

a database.
 It allows the user to set permission on tables/procedures/ views.
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 Characteristics of SQL
 SQL is easy to learn.
 SQL is used to access data from relational DBMS.
 SQL can execute queries against the database.
 SQL is used to describe the data.
 SQL is used to define the data in the database and manipulate
it when needed.
 SQL is used to create and drop the database and table.
 SQL is used to create a view, stored procedure, function in
a database.
 SQL allows users to set permissions on
tables/procedures/views.
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 Advantages of SQL
High speed
 Using the SQL queries, the user can quickly and
efficiently retrieve a large amount of records from a
database.

No coding needed
 In the standard SQL, it is very easy to manage the
database system. It doesn't require a substantial amount
of code to manage the database system.

Well defined standards

 Long established are used by the SQL databases that are
being used by ISO and ANSI.

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 Advantages of SQL
Portability
 SQL can be used in laptop, PCs, server and even some
mobile phones.

Interactive language
 SQL is a domain language used to communicate with the
database. It is also used to receive answers to the complex
questions in seconds.

Multiple data view

 Using the SQL language, the users can make different
views of the database structure.

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 SQL Data Types and Literals
SQL Datatype
 SQL Datatype is used to define the values that a column can
contain.
 Every column is required to have a name and data type in the
database table. There are various types of SQL Datatypes.

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 Binary Datatypes
There are Three types of binary Datatypes which are given
below:
Data Type Description

binary It has a maximum length of 8000 bytes. It contains fixed-

length binary data.

varbinary It has a maximum length of 8000 bytes. It

contains variable-length binary data.

image It has a maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes.

It contains variable-length binary data.

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 Approximate Numeric Datatype
The subtypes are given below:
Data type From To Description

float -1.79E + 308 1.79E + 308 It is used to specify a floating-

point value e.g. 6.2, 2.9 etc.

real -3.40e + 38 3.40E + 38 It specifies a single precision

floating point number

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 Exact Numeric Datatype
The subtypes are given below:

Data type Description

int It is used to specify an integer value.

smallint It is used to specify small integer value.

bit It has the number of bits to store.

decimal It specifies a numeric value that can have a
decimal number.

numeric It is used to specify a numeric value.

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 Character String Datatype
The subtypes are given below:

Data type Description

char It has a maximum length of 8000 characters. It contains

Fixed-length non-unicode characters.

varchar It has a maximum length of 8000 characters. It contains

variable-length non-unicode characters.

text It has a maximum length of 2,147,483,647 characters.

It contains variable-length non-unicode characters.

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 Date and time Datatype
The subtypes are given below:

Datatype Description

date It is used to store the year, month, and days value.

time It is used to store the hour, minute, and second values.

timestamp It stores the year, month, day, hour, minute, and

the
second value.

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 SQL Commands
 SQL commands are instructions.

 It is used to communicate with the database.

 It is also used to perform specific tasks, functions, and

queries of data.

 SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add data
to tables, drop the table, modify the table, set permission
for users etc.
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 Types of SQL Commands
There are five types of SQL commands: DDL, DML,
DCL, TCL, and DQL.

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 Data Definition Language
 DDL(DDL)
changes the structure of the table like creating a
table, deleting a table, altering a table, etc.

 All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means

it permanently save all the changes in the database. There
are some commands that come under DDL:

 CREATE
 ALTER
 DROP
 TRUNCATE
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 Data Definition Language
(DDL)
1. CREATE: It is used to create a new table in
database.
the

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME

DATATYPES[,....]);

Example:

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20),

Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB DATE);

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 Data Definition Language
(DDL)
2. DROP: It is used to delete both the structure and record
stored
in the table.

Syntax:

DROP TABLE Table Name;

Example:

DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

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 Data Definition Language
3. ALTER:(DDL)
It is used to alter the structure of the database. This
change could be either to modify the characteristics of an
existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.
Syntax:
1. To add a new column in the table
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name Datatype(Size);
2. To modify existing column in the table:
ALTER TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN DEFINITION....);
EXAMPLE:

4. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20));

5. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20));

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 Data Definition Language
(DDL)
3. TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table
and free the space containing the table.

Syntax:

1.TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:

1.TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;

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 SQL Operators
 SQL statements generally contain some reserved words or
characters that are used to perform operations such as
comparison and arithmetical operations etc. These reserved
words or characters are known as operators.

 Generally, there are three types of operators in SQL.

 SQL Arithmetic Operators

 SQL Comparison Operators
 SQL Logical Operators
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 SQL Arithmetic Operators
Let's assume two variables "a" and "b". Here "a" is valued 50
and "b" valued 100. Example:
perators Descriptions Examples
+ It is used to add containing values of a+b will give 150
both operands

- It subtracts right hand operand from left a-b will give -50
hand operand

* It multiply both operand's values a*b will give 5000

/ It divides left hand operand by right b/a will give 2

hand operand

% It divides left hand operand by right b%a will give 0

hand operand and returns reminder

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 SQL Comparison Operators
Operator Description Example
= Examine both operands value that are equal or not, if yes condition (a=b) is true
become true.
!= This is used to check the value of both operands equal or not,if not (a!=b) is true
condition become true.
<> Examines the operand's value equal or not, if values are not equal (a<>b) is true
condition is true
> Examine the left operand value is greater than right Operand, if yes (a>b) is not true
condition becomes true
< Examines the left operand value is less than right Operand, if yes (a<="" td="">
condition becomes true
>= Examines that the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the (a>=b) is not true
value of right operand or not,if yes condition become true

<= Examines that the value of left operand is less than or equal to the (a<=b) is true
value of right operand or not, if yes condition becomes true

!< Examines that the left operand value is not less than the right operand (a!<="" td="">
value
!> Examines that the value of left operand is not greater than the value of (a!>b) is true
right operand
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 SQL Logical Operators
Operator Description
ALL this is used to compare a value to all values in another value set.
AND this operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL
statement.
ANY this operator is used to compare the value in list according to
the condition.
BETWEEN this operator is used to search for values, that are within a set
of values
IN this operator is used to compare a value to that specified list value
NOT the NOT operator reverse the meaning of any logical operator
OR this operator is used to combine multiple conditions in SQL
statements
EXISTS the EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a
specified table
LIKE this operator is used to compare a value to similar values using
wildcard operator
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 SQL Table
 Table is a collection of data, organized in terms of rows and
columns.

 In DBMS term, table is known as relation and row as tuple.

 A table has a specified number of columns but can have any

number of rows.

 Table is the simple form of data storage. A table is

also
considered as a convenient representation of relations.

 Let's see an example of an employee table:

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 SQL Table

Employe
EMP_NAME e
ADDRESS SALARY

Ankit Lucknow 15000

Raman Allahabad 18000

Mike New York 20000

In the above table, "Employee" is the table name, "EMP_NAME", "ADDRESS"

and "SALARY" are the column names. The combination of data of multiple
columns forms a row e.g. "Ankit", "Lucknow" and 15000 are the data of one row.
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 SQL Table Variable
 The SQL Table variable is used to create, modify, rename,
copy and delete tables. Table variable was introduced by
Microsoft.

 It was introduced with SQL server 2000 to be an alternative

of temporary tables.

 It is a variable where we temporary store records and results.

This is same like temp table but in the case of temp table we
need to explicitly drop it.

 Table variables are used to store a set of records. So

declaration syntax generally looks like CREATE TABLE
syntax.
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 SQL Table Variable
create table "tablename"
("column1" "data
type", "column2" "data
type",
...
"columnN" "data
type");
 When a transaction rolled back the data associated
with table variable is not rolled back.

 A table variable generally uses lesser resources

than a temporary variable.

 Table variable cannot be used as an input or an

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output parameter.
 SQL CREATE TABLE
 SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create table in a
database.

 If you want to create a table, you should name the table and
define its column and each column's data type.

Let's see the simple syntax to create the table.

create table "tablename"

("column1" "data type",
"column2" "data type",
"column3" "data
type",
...
"columnN" "data
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type");
 SQL CREATE TABLE
 The data type of the columns may vary from one database to
another. For example, NUMBER is supported in Oracle
database for integer value whereas INT is supported in MySQL.

 Let us take an example to create a STUDENTS table with ID as

primary key and NOT NULL are the constraint showing that
these fields cannot be NULL while creating records in the table.
SQL> CREATE TABLE STUDENTS (
ID INT (2) NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT (2) NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
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 SQL CREATE TABLE
SQL> DESC STUDENTS;

FIELD TYPE NULL KEY DEFAULT EXTRA

ID Int(11) NO PRI

NAME Varchar(2 NO
0)

AGE Int(11) NO

ADDRESS Varchar(2 YES NULL

5)

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 SQL CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE Employee (
EmployeeID number(10),
FirstName varchar2(255),
LastName varchar2(255),
Email varchar2(255),
AddressLine varchar2(255),
City varchar2(255)
);

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 Create a Table using another table
CREATE TABLE table_name
AS SELECT column1,
column2,...
FROM old_table_name
WHERE ..... ;
The following SQL creates a copy of the employee
table. CREATE TABLE Employee_New AS
SELECT Employee_ID, First_Name, Email
FROM Employee;

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 SQL DROP TABLE
 A SQL DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table
definition and all data from a table.

 This is very important to know that once a table is deleted all

the information available in the table is lost forever, so we
have to be very careful when using this command.

 Syntax: DROP TABLE "table_name";

 SQL>DROP TABLE STUDENTS;

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 SQL DELETE TABLE
 The DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. If
you want to remove a specific row from a table you should use
WHERE condition.

 DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

 But if you do not specify the WHERE condition it will remove

all the rows from the table.

 DELETE FROM table_name;

 There are some more terms similar to DELETE statement like

DROP statement and TRUNCATE statement, but they are not
exactly same, there are some differences between them.
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 DIFFERENCE B/W DELETE and TRUNCATE

 There is a slight difference b/w delete and truncate statement.

 The DELETE statement only deletes the rows from the table
based on the condition defined by WHERE clause or delete all
the rows from the table when condition is not specified.

 But it does not free the space containing by the table.

 The TRUNCATE statement: it is used to delete all the

rows
from the table and free the containing space.

 Let's see an "employee" table.

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 DIFFERENCE B/W DROP and TRUNCATE
 When you use the drop statement it deletes the table's row
together with the table's definition so all the relationships of
that table with other tables will no longer be valid.

 When you drop a table:

 Table structure will be dropped

 Relationship will be dropped
 Integrity constraints will be dropped
 Access privileges will also be dropped

 On the other hand when we TRUNCATE a table, the table

structure remains the same, so you will not face any of the
above problems.
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 SQL RENAME TABLE
 SQL RENAME TABLE syntax is used to change the name of
a table. Sometimes, we choose non-meaningful name for the
table. So, it is required to be changed.

 Let's see the syntax to rename a table from the database.

 Optionally, you can write following command to rename the

table.

 RENAME old_table _name To new_table_name;

 Let us take an example of a table named "STUDENTS", now

due to some reason we want to change it into table name
"ARTISTS".
 RENAME STUDENTS To ARTISTS;
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 SQL TRUNCATE TABLE
 Truncate SQL statement is used to remove all rows (complete
data) from a table. It is similar to the DELETE statement with
no WHERE clause.

TRUNCATE TABLE Vs DELETE TABLE

 Truncate table is faster and uses lesser resources than DELETE

TABLE command.

TRUNCATE TABLE Vs DROP TABLE

 Drop table command can also be used to delete complete table

but it deletes table structure too. TRUNCATE TABLE doesn't
delete the structure of the table.Let's see the syntax to truncate
the table from the database.
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 SQL TRUNCATE TABLE
 TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

 For example, you can write following command to truncate the

data of employee table

 TRUNCATE TABLE Employee;

 The rollback process is not after truncate

possible statement. Onceyou table
truncate tableastatement
flashback table to retrieve the content
you of the
cannotuse
table. a
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 SQL COPY TABLE
 If you want to copy a SQL table into another table in the same
SQL server database, it is possible by using the select
statement.

 The syntax of copying table from one to another is given

below:

 SELECT * INTO <destination_table> FROM <source_table>

 For example, you can write following command to copy the
records of hr_employee table into employee table.

 SELECT * INTO admin_employee FROM hr_employee;

 SELECT INTO is totally different from INSERT
INTO
statement.
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 SQL ALTER TABLE
 The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, modify or
delete columns in an existing table. It is also used to rename a
table.

 You can also use SQL ALTER TABLE command to add and
drop various constraints on an existing table.

SQL ALTER TABLE Add Column

 If you want to add columns in SQL table, the SQL alter table
syntax is given below:

 ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name column-

definition;
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 SQL ALTER TABLE

 If you want to add multiple columns in table, the SQL table

will be:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD (column_1 column-definition,
column_2 column-
definition,
.....
column_n column-definition);

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 SQL ALTER TABLE
SQL ALTER TABLE Modify Column

 If you want to modify an existing column in SQL table, syntax

is given below:

 ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY

column_name column_type;
 If you want to modify multiple columns in table, the SQL table
will be:
ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY (column_1 column_type,
column_2 column_type,
.....
column_n
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column_type); Side 57
 SQL ALTER TABLE
SQL ALTER TABLE DROP Column

 The syntax of alter table drop column is given below:

 ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

SQL ALTER TABLE RENAME Column

 The syntax of alter table rename column is given below:

 ALTER TABLE table_name

 RENAME COLOUMN old_name to new_name;

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 SQL SELECT STATEMENT
 The most commonly used SQL command is SELECT
statement. It is used to query the database and retrieve selected
data that follow the conditions we want.

 In simple words, we can say that the select statement is used to

query or retrieve data from a table in the database.

 Let's see the syntax of select statement.

SELECT expressions
FROM tables
WHERE conditions;
Here
expression is
the
column
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 SQL SELECT STATEMENT
 There are some optional clauses in SELECT statement:

[WHERE Clause] : It specifies which rows to retrieve.

[GROUP BY Clause] : Groups rows that share a property so

that the aggregate function can be applied to each group.

[HAVING Clause] : It selects among the groups defined by the

GROUP BY clause.

[ORDER BY Clause] : It specifies an order in which to return

the rows.

For example, let a database table: student_details;

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 SQL SELECT STATEMENT
ID First_name Last_name Age Subject Hobby

1 Amar Sharma 20 Maths Cricket

2 Akbar Khan 22 Biology Football
3 Anthony Milton 25 Commerce Gambling

 From the above example, select the first name of all

the students. To do so, query should be like this:

SQL> SELECT first_name FROM student_details;

 The SQL commands are not case sensitive. We can

also write the above SELECT statement as:

SQL>select first_name from student_details;

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 SQL SELECT STATEMENT
SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name FROM
student_details;
Student_Name Gender Mobile_Number HOME_TOWN

Rahul Ojha Male 7503896532 Lucknow

Disha Rai Female 9270568893 Varanasi

Sonoo Jaiswal Male 9990449935 Lucknow

SQL> SELECT DISTINCT home_town FROM students;

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 SQL SELECT COUNT
 The SQL COUNT() function is used to return the number of
rows in a query.

 The COUNT() function is used with SQL SELECT statement

and it is very useful to count the number of rows in a table
having enormous data.

 For example: If you have a record of the voters in selected area

and want to count the number of voters then it is very difficult
to do it manually, but you can do it easily by using the SQL
SELECT COUNT query.Syntax of SQL COUNT statement.

SQL>SELECT COUNT (expression)

FROM tables WHERE conditions;
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 SQL SELECT COUNT
SQL> SELECT COUNT(name) FROM employee_table;

 It will return the total number of names of employee_table.

But null fields will not be counted.
SQL> SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT name) FROM
employee_table;

It will return the total distinct names of employee_table.

SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employee_table;

 The "select count(*) from table" is used to return

the number of records in table.
SQL> SELECT TOP 2 * FROM employee;
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 SQL SELECT CLAUSE
Table CUSTOMERS
CUSTOMER_ NAME AGE ADDRESS EXPENDITURE

KAMAL SHARMA 26 GHAZIABAD 6000

ROBERT PETT 23 NEWYORK 26000
SHIKHA SRIVASTAV 22 DELHI 9000

SQL> SELECT column_name FROM table_name ORDER BY

coloumn_name DESC;
SQL> SELECT LAST (CUSTOMER_NAME) AS
LAST_CUSTOMER
FROM CUSTOMERS;
SQL> SELECT ADDRESS AS “City"
CUSTOMER_NAME As "Client", Age, Expenditure FROM
CUSTOMERS;
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 SQL SELECT IN
 SQL IN is an operator used in a SQL query to reduce the need to use multiple
SQL "OR" conditions.
 It is used in SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE statement.

Advantage of SQL SELECT IN

 It minimizes the use of SQL OR operator.

Let's see the syntax for SQL IN:

1.Expression IN (value 1, value 2 ... value n);
Take an example with character values.
SQL>SELECT * FROM students WHERE students_name IN ( Amit , Raghav,
Raje ev);
SQL>SELECT * FROM marks WHERE roll_no IN (001, 023, 024);

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 SQL SELECT from Multiple Tables
 This statement is used to retrieve fields from multiple tables. To do so, we
need to use join query to get data from multiple tables.

SQL> SELECT orders.order_id, suppliers.name FROM suppliers

INNER JOIN orders ON suppliers.supplier_id = orders.supplier_id
ORDER BY order_id;
Let us take three tables, two tables of customers named customer1 and
customer2 and the third table is product table.

Customer1 table

Cus_id Name1

1 Jack
2 Jill

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 SQL SELECT from Multiple Tables
Customer2 table

Cus_id Name2
1 Sandy
2 Venus

Product table

P_id Cus_id P_name

1 1 Laptop
2 2 Phone
3 P1 Pen
4 P2 Notebook

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 SQL SELECT from Multiple Tables
SQL>SELECT p. p_id, p.cus_id, p.p_name, c1.name1, c2.name2
FROM product AS p LEFT JOIN customer1 AS c1 ON
p.cus_id=c1.cus_id
LEFT JOIN customer2 AS c2 ON p.cus_id = c2.cus_id ;

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 SQL WHERE
SQL> UPDATE suppliers
SET supplier_name = 'HP' WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM' AND offices =
8;

SQL> DELETE FROM suppliers WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM’

AND product = 'PC computers';

SQL> SELECT * FROM suppliers WHERE city = 'New York' OR

available_products >= 250;

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS ORDER BY NAME,

SALARY;

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS ORDER BY NAME

DESC;
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SQL>SELECT supplier_city FROM suppliers WHERE
 SQL GROUP BY
S.no Name AGE Salary

1 John 24 25000

2 Nick 22 22000

3 Amara 25 15000

4 Nick 22 22000

5 John 24 25000

SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM (SALARY) FROM Employee

GROUP BY NAME;
NAME SALARY

John 50000

Nick 44000

Amara 15000

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 SQL HAVING CLAUSE
SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM Employee
GROUP BY NAME HAVING SUM(SALARY)>45000;

Name SUM(SALARY)
John 50000
 The GROUP BY Clause is used to group the rows, which have the
same values.
 The SELECT statement in SQL is used with the GROUP BY clause.
 In the Group BY clause, the SELECT statement can
use constants, aggregate functions, expressions, and column names.
 The GROUP BY Clause is called when the HAVING clause is used to
reduce the results.
20-02-2021 Side 72
 Relational Algebra
 Relational algebra is a procedural query language, which
takes instances of relations as input and yields instances of
relations as output.

 It uses operators to perform queries. An operator can be

either unary or binary. They accept relations as their input
and yield relations as their output.

 Relational algebra is performed recursively on a relation and

intermediate results are also considered relations.

 The fundamental operations of relational algebra are as

follows:

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 Relational Algebra
 SELECT(σ)
 Projection(π)
 Rename (ρ)
 Union operation (υ)
 Set Difference (-)
 Intersection
 Cartesian product(X)
 Join Operations
 Inner Join
 Theta Join
 EQUI join
 NATURAL JOIN (⋈)
 OUTER JOIN
 Left Outer Join(A B)
 Right Outer Join ( A B )
 Full Outer Join: ( A B)
20-02-2021 Side 74
 Relational Algebra
SELECTION (σ)

 The SELECT operation is used for selecting a subset of the

tuples according to a given selection condition.
Sigma(σ)Symbol denotes it. It is used as an expression to
choose tuples which meet the selection condition. Select
operator
σp(r) selects tuples that satisfy a given
predicate.
σ is the predicate
r stands for relation which is the name of the
table p is prepositional logic
20-02-2021 Side 75
 Relational Algebra
Example 1
σ topic = "Database" (Tutorials)
Output - Selects tuples from Tutorials where topic = 'Database’.

Example 2

σ topic = "Database" AND author = ”Korth"( Tutorials)

Output - Selects tuples from Tutorials where the topic is
'Database' and 'author' is Korth.

Example 3
σ sales > 50000 (Customers)
Output - Selects tuples from Customers where sales is
greater than 50000
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 Relational Algebra
Projection(π)

 The projection eliminates all attributes of the input relation

but those mentioned in the projection list.

 The projection method defines a relation that

contains a
vertical subset of Relation.

 This helps to extract the values of specified attributes to

eliminates duplicate values. (pi) symbol is used to choose
attributes from a relation.

 This operator helps you to keep specific columns from a

relation and discards the other columns.
20-02-2021 Side 77
 Relational Algebra
CustomerID CustomerName Status

1 Google Active

2 Amazon Active

3 Apple Inactive

4 Alibaba Active

Π CustomerName, Status (Customers)

CustomerName Status

Google Active

Amazon Active

Apple Inactive

Alibaba Active

20-02-2021 Side 78
 Relational Algebra

Rename (ρ)

Rename is a unary operation used for renaming attributes of

a relation.

ρ (a/b)R will rename the attribute 'b' of relation by 'a'.

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 Relational Algebra
Union operation (U)

 UNION is symbolized by 𝖴 symbol. It includes all

tuples
that are in tables A or in B.

B would be expressed as A 𝖴 B.
 It also eliminates duplicate tuples. So, set A UNION set

 For a union operation to be valid, the

following conditions must hold:

 R and S must be the same number of attributes.

 Attribute domains need to be compatible.
 Duplicate tuples should be automatically removed.
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 Relational Algebra
Table A Table B
column 1 column 2 column 1 column 2
1 1 1 1
1 2 1 3

A𝖴 B
gives
Table A 𝖴 B
column 1 column 2
1 1
1 2
1 3
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 Relational Algebra
Set Difference (-)

 The result of A - B, is a relation which includes all tuples that

are in A but not in B.

 The attribute name of A has to match with the attribute name

in B.

 The two-operand relations A and B should be

either compatible or Union compatible.

 It should be defined relation consisting of the tuples that are in

relation A, but not in B.

20-02-2021 Side 82
 Relational Algebra
Table A - B
column 1 column 2
1 2

Intersection
 An intersection is defined by the symbol ∩
A∩B
 Defines a relation consisting of a set of all tuple that are
in both A and B. However, A and B must be union-
compatible.
Table A ∩ B
column 1 column 2

1 1
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 Relational Algebra
Cartesian Product(X) in DBMS

 Cartesian Product in DBMS is an operation used to merge

columns from two relations.

 Generally, a cartesian product is never a

meaningful operation when it performs alone.

 However, it becomes meaningful when it is followed

by other operations.

 It is also called Cross Product or Cross Join.

20-02-2021 Side 84
 Relational Algebra
Table A Table B
column 1 column 2 column 1 column 2
A B C D
B C E F

Table A X B
column 1 column 2 Column 3 Column 4
A B C D
A B E F
B C C D

B C E F
20-02-2021 Side 85
 Relational Algebra
Join Operations
 Join operation is essentially a cartesian product

 Join operation denoted by ⋈.

followed by a selection criterion.

 JOIN operation also allows joining variously related

tuples from
different relations.
Types of JOIN
Various forms of join operation are:
Inner Joins
 Theta join
 EQUI join
 Natural join
Outer join
 Left Outer Join
 Right Outer Join
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 Full Outer Join Side 86
 Relational Algebra
INNER JOIN
In an inner join, only those tuples that satisfy the
matching
criteria are included, while the rest are excluded. Let's study
various types of Inner Joins.
1. Theta Join
 THETA JOIN allows you to merge two tables based on
the
condition represented by theta.
 Theta joins work for all comparison operators.
 It is denoted by symbol θ.
20-02-2021 Side 87
 The general case of JOIN operation is called a Theta join
 Relational Algebra

R1 ⋈θ R2
Notation

Consider R1 and R2 are relations having attributes (A1, A2, ..,

An) and (B1, B2,.. ,Bn) such that the attributes don’t have
anything in common, that is R1 ∩ R2 = Φ.Theta join can use
all kinds of comparison operators.
STUDENT
SID Name Std
101 Alex 10
102 Maria 11

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 Relational Algebra
SUBJECT

Class Subject

10 Math

10 English

11 Music

11 Sports

Student_Detail −
STUDENT ⋈Student.Std = Subject.Class SUBJECT

20-02-2021 Side 89
 Relational Algebra
Student_detail
SID Name Std Class Subject
101 Alex 10 10 Math
101 Alex 10 10 English
102 Maria 11 11 Music
102 Maria 11 11 Sports
2. Equijoin
When Theta join uses only equality comparison operator, it
is said to be equijoin. The above example corresponds to
equijoin.
20-02-2021 Side 90
 Relational Algebra
3. Natural Join (⋈)
 Natural join does not use any comparison operator.
 It does not concatenate the way a Cartesian product does.
 We can perform a Natural Join only if there is at least one
common attribute that exists between two relations.
 In addition, the attributes must have the same name
and
domain.
 Natural join acts on those matching attributes where
the values of attributes in both the relations are same.
20-02-2021 Side 91
 Relational Algebra
Courses
CID Course Dept
CS01 Database CS
ME01 Mechanics ME
EE01 Electronics EE

HoD
Dept Head
CS Alex
ME Maya
EE Mira
20-02-2021 Side 92
 Relational Algebra
Courses ⋈ HoD
Dept CID Course Head

CS CS01 Database Alex

ME ME01 Mechanics Maya

EE EE01 Electronics Mira

OUTER JOIN
Theta Join, Equijoin, and Natural Joins are called inner joins.
An inner join includes only those tuples with matching
attributes and the rest are discarded in the resulting relation.
Therefore, we need to use outer joins to include all the tuples
from the participating relations in the resulting relation. There
are three kinds of outer joins − left outer join, right outer join,
and full outer join.
20-02-2021 Side 93
 Relational Algebra
1. Left Outer Join(R Left Outer Join S)
All the tuples from the Left relation, R, are included in the
resulting relation. If there are tuples in R without any
matching tuple in the Right relation S, then the S-attributes of
the resulting relation are made NULL.
Left
A B
100 Database
101 Mechanics
102 Electronics
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 Relational Algebra
Right
A B
100 Alex
102 Maya
104 Mira

Courses HoD
A B C D
100 Database 100 Alex
101 Mechanics --- ---
102 Electronics 102 Maya
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 Relational Algebra
Right Outer Join: ( R Right Outer Join S )
All the tuples from the Right relation, S, are included in the
resulting relation. If there are tuples in S without any matching
tuple in R, then the R-attributes of resulting relation are made
NULL.
Courses HoD
A B C D
100 Database 100 Alex
102 Electronics 102 Maya
--- --- 104 Mira
20-02-2021 Side 96
 Relational Algebra
Full Outer Join: ( R Full Outer Join S)
 All the tuples from both participating relations are included
in the resulting relation.
 If there are no matching tuples for both relations,
their respective unmatched attributes are made NULL.

Courses HoD
A B C D
100 Database 100 Alex
101 Mechanics --- ---
102 Electronics 102 Maya
--- --- 104 Mira

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