Reference Models

Lecture -3-4 (Theory)

Department of Computer Science and Engineering,

Chitkara University, Punjab

Prepared by
Dr. Neha Sharma (CSE)
 Index
• Operating System
• Protocols and Models
• Reference model
• Seven-Layers of OSI(Open System Interconnection)
• Concept of Layers
• Benefit of using layered Models
• Summary of layers
• Protocols used at each layer
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
 Operating Systems (OS)
All end devices and network devices require an operating system (OS). As shown in the figure 1, the
portion of the OS that interacts directly with computer hardware is known as the kernel. The portion that
interfaces with applications and the user is known as the shell. The user can interact with the shell using a
command-line interface (CLI) or a graphical user interface (GUI).

Figure 1 Operating system interacts with hardware, kernel, and Shell.

• Shell: The user interface that allows the user to request specific tasks from the computer. These
requests can be made either through CLI or GUI interfaces.
• Kernel: Communication between hardware and software of a computer and manages how hardware
resources are used to meet software requirements.
• Hardware: The physical part of a computer including underlying electronics.

Note: The operating system on home routers is usually called firmware. The most common method for configuring a
home router is by using a web browser-based GUI.
 Protocols and Models
• How a network device operates within a network?

A network device is a node in the wireless mesh network. It can transmit and receive wireless data and perform the basic

functions necessary to support network formation and maintenance.

Communications Fundamentals - Networks vary in size, shape, and function. For communication to occur, devices must

know “how” to communicate, three elements in common:

• Message source (sender) - Message sources are people, or electronic devices, that need to send a message to other

individuals or devices.
• Message Destination (receiver) - The destination receives the message and interprets it.
• Channel - This consists of the media that provides the pathway over which the message travels from source to

destination.

Sending a message, whether by face-to-face communication or over a network, is governed by rules called protocols.
Protocols must account for the following requirements to successfully deliver a message that is understood by the receiver:
An identified sender and receiver, Common language and grammar, Speed and timing of delivery, Confirmation or
acknowledgment requirements.
 Protocols and Models

Network Protocol Requirements - Common computer protocols include the following

requirements:

• Message encoding

• Message formatting and encapsulation

• Message size

• Message timing

• Message delivery options

 Network Protocol Overview
Protocols are implemented by end devices and intermediary devices in software, hardware, or both. Each network
protocol has its function, format, and rules for communications.

The table lists the various types of protocols that are needed to enable communications across one or more networks.

Protocol Type Description

Network Communications Protocols enable two or more devices to communicate over one or more networks.
Protocols The Ethernet family of technologies involves a variety of protocols such as IP,
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and
many more.
Network Security Protocols Protocols secure data to provide authentication, data integrity, and data encryption.
Examples of secure protocols include Secure Shell (SSH), Secure Sockets Layer
(SSL), and Transport Layer Security (TLS).
Routing Protocols Protocols enable routers to exchange route information, compare path information,
and then to select the best path to the destination network. Examples of routing
protocols include Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP).
Service Discovery Protocols Protocols are used for the automatic detection of devices or services. Examples of
service discovery protocols include Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
which discovers services for IP address allocation, and Domain Name System
(DNS) which is used to perform name-to-IP address translation.

The functions of these protocols are addressing, reliability, flow control, sequencing, error detection,
and application interface.
OSI Reference Model

Figure 2 OSI Reference Model

Benefit of using layered model
These are the benefits of using a layered model to describe network protocols and operations as shown in Figure 3:

•Assisting in protocol design because protocols that operate at a specific layer have defined information that they act
upon and a defined interface to the layers above and below
•Fostering competition because products from different vendors can work together
•Preventing technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers above and below
•Providing a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities
•Two layered models used: Open System Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model

Figure 3 Shows network protocols and operations of layered model

 OSI Reference Model

• OSI Reference Model - Internationally Standardized Network

Architecture.
• OSI = Open Systems Interconnection: deals with open systems, i.e.
systems open for communications with other systems.
• Specified in ISO 7498.
• Model has 7 layers.
 7-Layer OSI Model
Figure 4 displays 7 layers of OSI model and overview of their specific task.

Layer Application • Layers 1-4 relate to

7 Layer communications
Layer Presentation technology.
6 Layer
Layer Session • Layers 5-7 relate to user
5 Layer applications.
Layer Transport Layer
4
Layer Network
3 Layer
Layer Data Link
2 Layer
Layer Physical
1 Layer
Figure 4 Shows OSI model layers
Communications subnet boundary
 Reference model (OSI)

• OSI: Open System Interconnect

• Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a

multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was
first introduced in the late 1970s.
Layers of OSI model

Figure 5 shows responsibilities of OSI model layers

Figure 5 Shows responsibilities of OSI model layers

Interaction between layers in OSI model
Figure 6 shows interaction between layers in OSI model at each layer in detail.

Figure 6 Shows interaction between layers in OSI model.

An exchange using the OSI model
Figure 7 shows the exchange of information using OSI model and transmission medium.

Figure 7 Exchange of information using OSI model.

 Layers in the OSI model

• In this section we briefly describe the functions of each layer in the OSI
model.
• Physical Layer
• Data Link Layer
• Network Layer
• Transport Layer
• Session Layer
• Presentation Layer
• Application Layer
Layer 1 :Physical Layer

Figure 8 Shows the physical layer information transmitted in OSI model.

Note
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from
one hop (node) to the next.
Layer 2 : Data link layer

Figure 9 Shows the data link layer information transmitted in OSI model.

Note
The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop
(node) to the next.
Layer 3 : Network layer

Figure 10 Shows the network layer information transmitted in OSI model.

Note
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets
from the source host to the destination host.
Source to destination delivery

Figure 11 Shows the network layer detailed information transmitted in OSI model.
 Layer 4: Transport Layer

• Manages transmission packets

1. Repackages long messages when necessary into small packets for transmission
2. Reassemble packets in the correct order to get the original message.
• Handles error recognition and recovery.
1. Transport layer at receiving acknowledges packet delivery.
2. Resends missing packets

• Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-end connectivity. It is also known as the heart of OSI
Layers. Following tasks are performed at the Transport Layer : -
• Identifying Service
• Multiplexing & De-multiplexing
• Segmentation
• Sequencing & Reassembling
• Error Correction
• Flow Control
• Transport
Transport layer

Figure 12 Shows the transport layer information transmitted in OSI model.

Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
Identify Service

Figure 13 TCP Vs UDP

Segmentation

Figure 14 Segmentation process

Sequence & Reassembling

Figure 15 Sequence & Reassembly

Layer 5: Session Layer
• Allows two applications on different computers to establish, use, and end a session.e.g.
file transfer, remote login
• Establishes dialog control -Regulates which side transmits, plus when and how long it
transmits.
• Performs token management and synchronization.
• Session Layer is responsible for establishing, maintaining and terminating session.
Session ID works at Session Layer.
Examples :
• RPC - Remote Procedure Call
• SQL - Structured Query Language
• NFS - Network File System
Session layer

Figure 16 Shows the session layer information transmitted in OSI model.

Note
The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
Layer 6 -Presentation layer

Figure 17 Shows the presentation layer information transmitted in OSI model.

Note
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and
encryption.
Layer 7 - Application layer

Figure 18 Shows the application layer information transmitted in OSI model.

Note
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
Summary of layers

Figure 19 Presents the summary of layers of OSI model.

Protocol supported at various layers
 Protocols at Application layer

• TELNET: Telnet stands for the TELetype NETwork. It helps in terminal emulation. It
allows Telnet clients to access the resources of the Telnet server. It is used for managing
files on the internet. It is used for the initial setup of devices like switches. The telnet
command is a command that uses the Telnet protocol to communicate with a remote device
or system. Port number of telnet is 23.
• FTP: FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is the protocol that actually lets us transfer
files. It can facilitate this between any two machines using it. But FTP is not just a protocol
but it is also a program. FTP promotes sharing of files via remote computers with reliable
and efficient data transfer. The Port number for FTP is 20 for data and 21 for control.
• TFTP: The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is the stripped-down, stock version of
FTP, but it’s the protocol of choice if you know exactly what you want and where to find it.
It’s a technology for transferring files between network devices and is a simplified version
of FTP. The Port number for TFTP is 69.
 Continued….

• SMTP: It stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is a part of the TCP/IP protocol.
Using a process called “store and forward,” SMTP moves your email on and across
networks. It works closely with something called the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) to send
your communication to the right computer and email inbox. The Port number for SMTP
is 25.
• SNMP: It stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It gathers data by polling
the devices on the network from a management station at fixed or random intervals,
requiring them to disclose certain information. It is a way that servers can share
information about their current state, and also a channel through which an administrate
can modify pre-defined values. The Port number of SNMP is 161(TCP) and 162(UDP).
• DNS: It stands for Domain Name System. Every time you use a domain name, therefore,
a DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address. For example,
the domain name www.abc.com might translate to 198.105.232.4.
The Port number for DNS is 53
Continued…

• DHCP: It stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). It gives IP

addresses to hosts. There is a lot of information a DHCP server can provide to a host
when the host is registering for an IP address with the DHCP server. Port number for
DHCP is 67, 68.
Presentation layer protocols

• MPEG: The Moving Pictures Experts Group's standard for the compression
and coding of motion video for CD's is very popular. QuickTime: This is for use
with Machintosh or Power PC programs, it manages audio and video applications.
• SSL (Secure Socket Layer) and TLS (Transport Layer Security) are popular
cryptographic protocols that are used to imbue web communications with integrity,
security, and resilience against unauthorized tampering.
Session layer protocols

• NetBIOS is a non-routable OSI Session Layer 5 Protocol and a service that

allows applications on computers to communicate with one another over a local area
network (LAN). NetBIOS was developed in 1983 by Sytek Inc. as an API for
software communication over IBM PC Network LAN technology.
• SAP: The protocol used by SAP programs that communicate using the NI interface
is called the SAP Protocol. This is an enhanced version of the TCP/IP protocol,
which has been supplemented by one length field and some options for error
information .
Transport layer protocol

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - is a transport protocol that is used on top

of IP to ensure reliable transmission of packets. TCP includes mechanisms to
solve many of the problems that arise from packet-based messaging, such as lost
packets, out of order packets, duplicate packets, and corrupted packets.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – a communications protocol that facilitates the
exchange of messages between computing devices in a network. It's an
alternative to the transmission control protocol (TCP). In a network that uses the
Internet Protocol (IP), it is sometimes referred to as UDP/IP.
 Internet protocol
• IPV6: Internet Protocol version 6 is the most recent version of the Internet
Protocol, the communications protocol that provides an identification and
location system for computers on networks and routes traffic across the
Internet.
• ICMP: ICMP is a network level protocol. ICMP messages communicate
information about network connectivity issues back to the source of the
compromised transmission. It sends control messages such as destination
network unreachable, source route failed, and source quench.
• MPLS: Multiprotocol Label Switching, or MPLS, is a networking
technology that routes traffic using the shortest path based on “labels,”
rather than network addresses, to handle forwarding over private wide area
networks.
• ARP: ARP is the protocol used to associate the IP address to a MAC
address. When a host wants to send a packet to another host, say IP address
10.5. 5.1, on its local area network (LAN), it first sends out (broadcasts) an
ARP packet.
Data Link Layer Protocols

• PPP: In computer networking, Point-to-Point Protocol is a data link layer

communication protocol between two routers directly without any host or
any other networking in between. It can provide connection authentication,
transmission encryption, and data compression.
• ATM: ATM is a core protocol used in the SONET/SDH backbone of the
public switched telephone network (PSTN) and in the Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN), but has largely been superseded in favor of next-
generation networks based on Internet Protocol (IP) technology
Physical layer Protocols

• ISDN: ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network is a circuit-switched

telephone network system that transmits both data and voice over a digital
line. You can also think of it as a set of communication standards to
transmit data, voice, and signaling. These digital lines could be copper
lines.
• 100Base-TX: 100Base-TX is an Ethernet networking standard (IEEE
802.3u standard.) that supports up to 100 Mbps transfer speed. 100Base-
TX was also called as FastEthernet, because Ethernet was 10 Mbps that
time and FastEthernet was faster than Ethernet.
PDU (Protocol Data Unit)
Questions
1.Which type of communication will send a message to a group of host destinations simultaneo
unicast
anycast
multicast
Broadcast

2.What process is used to receive transmitted data and convert it into a readable message?
encapsulation
access control
decoding
flow control

3.What is done to an IP packet before it is transmitted over the physical medium?

It is segmented into smaller individual pieces.
It is tagged with information guaranteeing reliable delivery.
It is encapsulated in a Layer 2 frame.
It is encapsulated into a TCP segment.
Questions
4.What process is used to place one message inside another message for transfer from the source to
the destination?
decoding
access control
encapsulation
flow control

5.A web client is sending a request for a webpage to a web server. From the perspective of the client,
what is the correct order of the protocol stack that is used to prepare the request for transmission?
Ethernet, IP, TCP, HTTP
HTTP, TCP, IP, Ethernet
HTTP, IP, TCP, Ethernet
Ethernet, TCP, IP, HTTP

References :
Data Communications and Networking’ by Forouzan, 5th Edition, 2013
Netacad course
Computer Networks Dr. Vidhu Baggan