F.w.

Riggs: Ecological approach

(m.a. Semester-2 mpolcc-5)

By-
Rakesh Ranjan
Dept. of political Science,
Patna University, Patna
 INTRODUCTION
• Fred W. Riggs is propounder of Ecological Approach in Public
Administration. He wrote the book “The Ecology of Public
Administration” in 1962 in which he threw light on the
relationship & interaction of an administration with its external
surroundings.

• Riggs was well known for his studies in Comparative Public

Administration specially ‘Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model’. He
developed the model for understanding the administrative
structures and organizational behaviour. The main thrust of his
model is that Western Models are relatively less relevant to the
developing countries, which have unique environment/contexts-
social structures, economic life, cultural practices, political
symbols, allocation of power, division of labour, etc. Unlike the
developed nations, the administrative systems in these
countries are considerably shaped by the ecology.
INTRODUCTION

In the study of Comparative Public Administration, Riggs

identified three major trends-
(A) the shift form a Normative Approach to a more Empirical Approach,
(B) the transformation from Ideographic Approach ( studies of a single agency or
country) to a Nomothetic Approach ( giving greater priority to generalizations,
laws and theory building based on regular patterns of administrative institution)
and
(C) the shift from a Non-ecological approach ( study of formal administrative
institutions without considering contextual influence ) to a more Ecological
Approach ( that emphasis on interaction between institutions and their contextual
factors such as social structure, tradition, culture ).
Riggs emphasized the need to study
administrative systems in the ecological perspective so
as to gain a comprehensive and in-depth
understanding of the administrative dynamics.
Ecological Approach of Public
Administration

• The Ecological Approach to the study of public administration was first

initiated by J. M Gaus, Robert Dhal and Robert A. Merton. Latter Riggs
made distinctive contribution to the approach.

• Ecology of public administration includes the study of people

place/property; physical and social technology; personality and
aspirations of people; emergency conditions/ catastrophes.
Gaus argued that administrative systems are influenced by its
surrounding factors. Furthering this concept, Riggs analyzed the
relationship between administrative systems and ecological factors-
history, social structures, traditions, customs, economic situation,
political symbols, technology and communication, etc, in a larger
perspective. On the basis of his studies in Thailand and Philippines,
he explained how environmental conditions influence administrative
systems.
Structural- Functional Approach

• Riggs analysis of public administration primarily relies upon a Structural-

Functional Approach. He refers to structure as a society’s pattern of
activity. Riggs attempted to explain the various societies. The traditional
agrarian societies, highly developed industrial societies, and developing
societies are functionally and structurally distinct.
• He termed functionally diffused societies as ‘Fused societies’ (in
traditional societies various social functions and social structures are
highly functionally diffuse, that is, there is no organized division of labour)
and functionally specific’s societies are ‘Diffracted societies’ (as found
with in an industrialized societies). In addition to these two diametrically
opposed extremes i.e. lack of division of labour society versus a highly
specific’s society, there is a third society called ‘prismatic society’- Riggs’
most popular model. Riggs emphasized that ‘Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted
models’ are designed to be ‘ideal‘ types not to be found in any actual
society. Nevertheless these models would help us to understand and
analyze the societies and function of administrative systems.
•
Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model

• The ideal models of fused, prismatic and diffracted societies aimed at

studying the pre­historic, developing and developed societies. While
explaining the concept of structural- functional approach, it was
mentioned that social structures may perform large no of functions in
some societies. This is called multi-functionality and such social
structures are called “functionally diffuse”. On the other hand
‘functionally specific’ social structures perform only prescribed limited
functions.

• Riggs calls functionally diffuse societies as “Fused” and the functionally

specific societies as “Diffracted”. The society which is intermediate
between these types of societies is called “Prismatic" society. Prismatic
society has features of both fused and diffracted societies. Riggs
emphasized that all societies are generally prismatic and no society
could be called purely fused or diffracted. It should be noted that Riggs
developed fused-prismatic-diffracted models only for heuristic purposes
and their exact characteristics are not found in any actual society.
Characteristics of Fused Societies

Based on experiences in imperial China and pre-revolutionary Thailand,

Riggs proposed the concept and characteristics of fused societies:

• (i) In these societies, a single structure carries out a number of functions.

• (ii)These societies heavily depend on agriculture with no industrialization

and modernization.

• (iii) The economic system is based on law of exchange and barter system.

• (iv) The King and royal family members and officials nominated by the king
carry out all administrative, economic and other activities by themselves.
Characteristics of Fused Societies

• Riggs maintained that the administrative systems in fused

societies are based on the structure of family, and it strives to
protect the special interests of the family and certain sects
rather than aiming at universal happiness and overall
development.

• These societies do not differentiate between justice and

injustice; formal and informal setups and governmental and
nongovernmental activities. Ascriptive values play a dominant
role in the society and the behaviour of people are highly
traditional. Age old customs, beliefs, faith and traditional ways
of living enable people to live together and control their
behaviours.
•
Characteristics of Diffracted Societies

Riggs uses American society as a model of diffracted society. According to

him characteristics of diffracted societies are:
• (i) Diffracted society is with a high degree of specialization and each
structure carries out a specialized function.
• (ii) All organizations and structures in the society are created and based on
scientific rational.
• (iii) Ascriptive values cease to exist, giving way to the attainment of values
in the society.
• (iv) Governments are responsive to the needs of people and protection of
human rights. People bring pressure on the government to get their
demands fulfilled.
• (v) There is general consensus among the people on all basic aspects of
social life.
• (vi) The economic system of this type of society is centered on market
mechanism. The influence of market has both direct and indirect effects on
the other facets of the society. Riggs described this as marketised society.
Characteristics of Prismatic Societies

• Riggs devoted much of his efforts on Prismatic Model to explain

the nature and administration in the post-colonial emergent
nations. While doing his field work in Thailand and teaching in
Philippines, he articulated prismatic model based on the
metaphor of prism as the fused white sunlight passes through a
prism, it becomes diffracted into several separate colours. Here
the fused light signifies fused structures of a traditional society;
the diffracted colours represent the specialized or diffracted
structures of modern society ; and the situation within the prism
reflects the conditions in developing nations, which Riggs
regarded as prismatic societies.
Characteristics of Prismatic Societies

According to Riggs, prismatic society has three important

characteristics, which are:
(i) Heterogeneity:
There exists modern features of society side by side with
traditional features.
The people are not integrated but divided on line of religion
etc.
Un equal level of development.
Highly westernized and modern urban sector co-exists with
rural irrational sector.
Characteristics of Prismatic Societies

• (ii) Formalism:
Formalism is the deference between the prescribed and the
practiced.
Level of formalism is dependent on the nature of pressure for
development. If the pressure comes from outside, level of
formalism increases.
In Formalistic situation, values and norms may receive lip
service but ignored in real practice.
Characteristics of Prismatic Societies

• (iii) Functional overlapping :

• In a prismatic society similar functions are performed by
different institutions. This features shows that differentiated
structures co-exist with undifferentiated structures. Overlapping
is manifest in a prismatic society by many features e. g.
nepotism, poly-communalism or poly -normavativism, lack of
consensus, separation of authority and control.
• Due to these features, the social change in a prismatic society
is inconsistent, incomplete and irresponsive.
Sala Model in Prismatic Societies

• Riggs termed the administrative systems in prismatic societies

as ‘sala’, which has variety of meanings; in diffracted societies
it is known as such as bureau or office and in fused society it is
termed as chamber.
• The sala has certain features of diffracted bureau and fused
chamber. The administrative rationality and efficiency found in
bureau are absent in the sala. Riggs explained that in the
prismatic societies, family, community, nepotism etc., play
important role in the appointment to various administrative
positions and in taking decisions or performing administrative
functions.
•
Sala Model

• Characteristics:
• (i) Nepotism: In contrast to the diffracted society, in prismatic
society the considerations of caste, religion, family and loyalty
etc. are the deciding factors in official recruitment. In diffracted
society universalism is the criteria for official recruitment. This is
due to the fact that in prismatic society ‘selectivism’ which is
intermediate between ‘universalism’ and ‘particularism’ prevails
i. e. sometimes universalism is followed while at others
particularism is followed.
Sala Model

• (ii) Poly-Communalism: Poly-communalism refers to the

simultaneous existence in a society of various ethnic,
religious and racial groups which remain quite hostile to
each other while in existence. These groups are termed
as ‘clects’ by Riggs and they are characterized by
attainment norms, selectivism and poly-functionalism.
• (iii) Poly-Normativism (Lack of consensus): This means
that the traditional behaviour pattern co-exists with ‘new’
sets of norms. This results in lack of consensus on norms
of behaviour. Sala officials though publicly claim to follow
objective, universalistic and achievement oriented norms
actually follow subjective, particularistic and ascriptive
behaviour .
Sala Model

• (iv) Separation of Authority and Control: In a prismatic

society the authority and control structures are separated.
There is a separation of ‘de-jure’ authority (legitimate power)
from ‘de-facto’ control (illegitimate power). The upper hand
of bureaucrats in the exercise of power makes the political
process weak and the administration becomes
unresponsive in prismatic societies. This results in nepotism
in recruitment, corruption and inefficiency in the
administration of laws.
• (v) Bazaar-Canteen Model: Economic sub-system of
prismatic society was termed as ‘bazaar – canteen’ by
Riggs. In prismatic societies the prices charged for the
public services vary according to the relationship between
the sala official and his clientele.
Criticisms

• (1) Critique of Riggs’ theory identifies the scope of the ‘fused-

prismatic-diffracted model’ as being too broad and abstract.
Riggs’ structural -function studies, which include several cultural
factors – including economic, social, and political - are difficult to
follow.
• (2) Scholars have found that in some cases the fused-
prismatic-diffracted model ignores certain variables. For
example, factors such as historical background, the political
structure of post-colonial countries, territorial size, the status of
hierarchical power, and the role of the military, as well as social
ideologies were left out.
• (3) Riggs uses American society as his model of a
diffracted society. Although American society is developed and
industrialized but, it is wrong to infer that it is free of formalism
and no longer a prismatic society.
Criticisms

• (4) Another critique of the “fused-prismatic-diffracted” model

argues that while it is predicated on the notion of deduction,
there is little empirical evidence to support it.
• (5) Riggs has considered the impact of external socio-cultural,
economic and political factors on sala but he has not much
considered the impact of sala on socio-cultural and economic
factors.
• (6) Riggsian models do not look into possibility of relative
independence of various ‘social structures’.
Conclusion

• The ideal type models of Riggs have influenced much research

in Comparative Public Administration. Ecological models help
qualitative comparisons among various societies. The
ecological model has brought consciousness of interaction
between administrative system and the social environment
around it. It enables comparative public administration scholars
to comprehend each country’s administrative attributes and
differences. The model has also to a great extent explained the
problems of inefficiency in developing countries of the world.
Thank You