Communication

Systems

Introduction to Signals
&
Fourier Series
Lecture#2
Signals
o Broad definition: Functions of
independent variables.
o A signal as the term implies, is a set of
information or data.
o Examples: music, velocity of some car,
your cash, voltage or current in a
circuit, your body temperature, your
heart’s blood pumping rate..
o Signals can be functions of single or
multiple independent variables.
o We will only deal with signals that are
functions of single independent variable,
Signals (cont’d)
o Signals can be:
o Discrete x[n], n is integer.
o Continuous x(t), t is real.
o Signals can be represented in mathematical
form:
x(t) = et, x[n] = n/2

o Discrete signals can also be represented as

sequences:
{y[n]} = {…,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,…}
Analog vs. Digital Signals
o Amplitude of analog signal can
take any real or complex value at
each time/sample

o Amplitude of digital signal takes

1
values from a discrete set

-1
Bounded and Unbounded
Signals
Systems
o Signals may be processed further by
systems, which may modify them or
extract additional information for them.
o Hardware realization/software
realization
o System is a black box that transforms
input signals to output signals.
Size of a Signal
o A signal that may exist over certain
time interval with varying amplitude
be measured by one number that
will indicate the signal size or
strength.
o It must consider not only the
amplitude but also its duration.
Signal Energy

o Area under a signal g(t) is a measure of its size, as

the positive and negative areas could cancel each
other, so the signal size can be defined as the area
under g2 (t),this measure the signal energy.
Signal Power

o Signal power: time average of signal energy

Examples of Signals
Example 2.1

o Determine the suitable measures of

the signals in Fig 2.3
Solution
Deterministic & Random
Signals
o A signal whose physical description is
known completely, in either a
mathematical form or a graphical form is
deterministic
A cos 2signal.
C
ft exp( at )

o If a signal is known only in terms of

probabilistic description, such as mean
value, mean squared value and so on,
rather than its complete mathematical or
graphical description, is a random signal.
o Most of the message & noise signals
Some Useful Signal Operations

o Time shifting
Time Scaling

o The compression or expansion of a signal

in time is known as time scaling.
Time scaling (continued)
Example 2.3

o Figure 2.10a and b shows the signals

g(t) and z(t), respectively, Sketch:
(a) g(3t); (b) z(t/2).
Solution
Time Inversion (Time Reversal)

Fig 2.11Time inversion (reflection) of a signal

Example 2.4
Signals and Vectors
o Analogy between Signals and Vectors
o --A vector can be represented as a sum of its components
o --A Signal can also be represented as a sum of its components
o Component of a vector:
o A vector is represented by bold-face type
o Specified by its magnitude and its direction.
E.g
Vector x of magnitude | x | and Vector g of magnitude | g |
o Let the component of vector g along x be cx
o Geometrically this component is the projection of g on x
o The component can be obtained by drawing a perpendicular from
the tip of g on x and expressed as
g = cx + e
Component of a Vector

o There are infinite ways to express g in

terms of x

o g is represented in terms of x plus another

vector which is called the error vector e
o If we approximate g by cx
Component of a Vector
(cont..)
o The error in this approximation is the
vector e
e = g – cx
o The error in the approximation in
both cases for last figure are
Component of a Vector
(cont..)
o We can mathematically define the component of
vector g along x
o We take dot product (inner or scalar) of two
vectors g and x as:
g.x = | g || x | cos 
o The length of vector by definition is
|x|² = x.x
o The length of component of g along x is
c| x | = | g | cos 
o Multiply both sides by | x |
c | x | ² = | g | | x | cos  = g . x
Component of a Vector
(cont..)
o Consider the first figure again and
expression for c

o Let g and x are perpendicular (orthogonal)

o g has a zero component along x gives c = 0
o From equation g and x are orthogonal if the inner (scalar or dot)
product of two vectors is zero i.e.

g.x = 0
Component of a Signal

o Vector component and orthogonally can be

extended to signals
o Consider approximating a real signal g(t) in
terms of another real signal x(t)

o The error e(t) in the approximation is given by

Component of a Signal

o As energy is one possible measure of signal size.

o To minimize the effect of error signal we need to
minimize its size-----which is its energy over the
interval

For some choice of c the energy is minimum

Component of a Signal
 Component of a Signal

•• Remarkable similarity between behavior of

Remarkable similarity between behavior of
vectors
vectorsand
andsignals.
signals.Area
Areaunder
underthe
theproduct
productofof
Recall equation for two vectors two
twosignals
signalscorresponds
correspondstotothethedot
dotproduct
productofoftwtw
vectors
vectors
•• The energy of the signal is the inner product of
The energy of the signal is the inner product o
signal
signalwith
withitself
itselfand
andcorresponds
correspondstotothethevector
vector
length
length squared (which is the inner productofofthe
squared (which is the inner product th
vector
vectorwith
withitself)
itself)
Component of a Signal

o Consider the signal equation again:

t2
1
c
Ex g (t ) x(t )dt
t1

o Signal g(t) contains a component cx(t)

o cx(t) is the projection of g(t) on x(t)
o If cx(t) = 0 c=0
o signal g(t) and x(t) are orthogonal over the interval

t ,t
1 2

Example 2.5 Component
of a Signal (cont..)
o For the square signal g(t), find the
component of g(t) of the form sint or
in other words approximate g(t) in
terms of sint
g (t ) c sin t 0 t 2
Example 2.5 (cont…)

x (t ) sin t and

From equation

t2
1
c 
E x t1
g (t ) x(t )dt

2  2
1 1  4
c  g (t ) sin tdt   sin tdt   sin tdt  
 o  0   
4
g (t )  sin t

Energy of the sum of
orthogonal signals
o Sum of the two orthogonal vectors is
equal to the sum of the lengths of the
squared of two vectors. z = x+y then

2 2 2
z x  y

o Sum of the energy of two orthogonal

signals is equal to the sum of the energy
of the two signals. If x(t) and y(t) are
orthogonal signals over the interval,
and if E z E x  E y
o z(t) = x(t)+ y(t) then
Correlation

o Consider vectors again:

o Two vectors g and x are similar if g has a
large component along c
OR
o If c has a large value, then the two
vectors will be similar
o c could be considered the quantitative
measure of similarity between g and x
But such a measure could be defective. The amount of
similarity should be independent of the lengths of g and
x
 Correlation
o Doubling g should not change the
similarity between g and x

However:
However: 
Doubling
Doubling gg doubles
doubles the
the value
value of
of c is faulty
cc measure for
Doubling similarity
Doubling xx halves
halves the
the value
value of
of cc
o Similarity between the vectors is indicated by
angle between the vectors. g .x
cn cos  
o The smaller the angle , the largest is the g x
similarity, and vice versa
o Thus, a suitable measure would be , given by
Independent of the lengths
of g and x
 Correlation

g .x
cn cos  
g x
This similarity measure is known as correlation co-
efficient

The magnitude of cn is never greater than unity

 1 cn 1

o Same arguments for defining a similarity index (correlation

co-efficient) for signals
o consider signals over the entire time interval

1
cn 
Eg Ex g (t ) x(t )dt

 Correlation

o consider g (t ) kx(t )
Related
Relatedsignals-------Best
signals-------Bestfriends
friends
If k is positive then:cn 1

Negative then:
cn  1 Dissimilarity
Dissimilarityworst
worstenemies
enemies
If g(t) and x(t) are orthogonal then

cn 0
Unrelated
Unrelatedsignals-------Strangers
signals-------Strangers
Example 2.6
Example 2.6 (cont’d)

5 5
E x x 2 (t )dt dt 5 Similarly E g1 5
0 0

5
1

1
cn 
Eg Ex g (t ) x(t )dt

 cn  
5 5 0
dt 1
Maximum
Maximumpossible
possiblesimilarity
similarity
Example 2.6 (cont’d)

5 5
E x x 2 (t )dt dt 5 E g 2 1.25
0 0


1 1
5
cn 
Eg Ex g (t ) x(t )dt

 cn  
1.25 5 0
(0.5)dt 1

Maximum
Maximumpossible
possiblesimilarity……independent
similarity……independentof
of
amplitude
amplitude
Example 2.6 (cont’d…)

5 5
E x x 2 (t )dt dt 5 Similarly E g1 5
0 0

5
1

1
cn 
Eg Ex g (t ) x(t )dt

 cn  
5 5 0
(1)(  1)dt  1
Example 2.6(cont’d)

5 5
E x x 2 (t )dt dt 5
0 0

T 2 T
1
E (e  at
) dt e  2 at
dt  (1  e  2 aT )
0 0
2a
1 T 5
Here a 5 t
5 1
E g 4 2.1617
cn  
5 2.1617 0
e 5
dt 0.961
Reaching
ReachingMaximum
Maximumsimilarity
similarity
Example 2.6(cont’d)

5 5
E x x 2 (t )dt dt 5
0 0

T 2 T
1
E (e  at
) dt e  2 at
dt  (1  e  2 aT )
0 0
2a
1 T 5
Here a 5 t
5 1
E g 4 2.1617
cn  
5 2.1617 0
e 5
dt 0.961
Reaching
ReachingMaximum
Maximumsimilarity
similarity
 Application to Signal
Detection
o Correlation measure the degree of similarity b/w two
signals
o The concept is widely used in signal processing application
in radar, sonar, digital communication and electronic
warfare for many others.
o In radar a signal pulse is transmitted in order to detect a
suspected target.
o If the target is present the pulse is reflected by it.
o In the absence of target ,there will be no reflected
pulse ,just a noise. By detecting the presence and absence
of the reflected pulse we confirm the presence or absence
of target
o The crucial problem in this procedure is to detect heavily
attenuated, reflected pulse buried in unwanted noise
signal.
o Correlation of the received pulse with the transmitted pulse 44
Cross correlation and auto
correlation

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 Correlation

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 Types of Correlation

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Orthogonal Signals Set

Representation of vector in 3D space

Orthogonal Signal Space
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