HIGH SPEED FLIGHT

11.02
 SPEED OF SOUND
MODERN AIRCRAFT ARE CAPABLE AT CRUISING
AT SPEEDS AROUND 87% OF THE SPEED OF SOUND.
THIS AMOUNTS TO AROUND 575 MPH AT 36,000
FEET.
THE SPEED AT WHICH SOUND WAVES TRAVEL
WILL VARY WITH A CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE.
AS TEMPERATURE INCREASES THE SPEED OF
SOUND WILL INCREASE, AS IT DECREASES THE
SPEED OF SOUND WILL DECREASE.
ON A DAY WITH A TEMPERATURE OF 15 0C, AT SEA
LEVEL, THE SOUND WILL TRAVEL AT 761 MPH, THE
SPEED DECREASING WITH ALTITUDE AS THE
TEMPERATURE DROPS.
 SPEED OF SOUND
THE MOST IMPORTANT AERODYNAMIC HIGH
SPEED MEASUREMENT IS THE MACH NUMBER,
WHICH IS THE RATIO OF THE TRUE AIRSPEED,
AGAINST THE SPEED OF SOUND AT ALTITUDE.
SOUND WAVES WILL CAUSE A CONTINUOUS
SERIES OF PULSES OR PRESSURE WAVES
RADIATING OUT FROM THE POINT OF ORIGIN.
THE ACTUAL SPEED AT WHICH THE PRESSURE
WAVES RADIATE OUT DEPENDS ON THE TYPE
AND DENSITY OF THE MATERIAL IN WHICH
THEY ARE TRAVELLING.
 SPEED OF SOUND

POINT OF ORIGIN
 SPEED OF SOUND
SOUND WAVES RADIATE
OUT FROM THE POINT
OF ORIGIN

EQUAL IN ALL DIRECTIONS

 SUBSONIC FLIGHT
WHEN THE AIRCRAFT BEGINS TO MOVE THROUGH
THE AIR AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS THE PRESSURE
WAVES STILL RADIATE OUT FROM THE AIRCRAFT.
THE PRESSURE WAVES ARE TRAVELLING FASTER
THAN THE AIRCRAFT AND BEGIN TO BUILD UP IN
FRONT OF IT BUT SPREAD OUT BEHIND IT.
AS THE PRESSURE WAVES ARE CLOSER TOGETHER
IN FRONT OF THE AIRCRAFT, THE SOUND OF THE
AIRCRAFT COMING TOWARDS YOU WOULD SEEM
LOUDER THAN WHEN IT HAS PASSED YOU.
THIS IS KNOWN AS THE DOPPLER EFFECT OR
DOPPLER SHIFT.
 SUBSONIC FLIGHT

PRESSURE WAVE

DIRECTION OF
FLIGHT

SOUND RADIATES OUT FROM THE AIRCRAFT

 SUBSONIC FLIGHT
SOUND WAVES ARE CLOSER SOUND WAVES ARE SPREAD
TOGETHER IN FRONT OUT BEHIND

THE SOUND WAVES TRAVEL FASTER THAN THE AIRCRAFT

 SUBSONIC FLIGHT

THE AIRCRAFT WOULD SOUND LOUDER COMING TOWARDS YOU AND

QUIETER AS IT HAS PASSES. THIS IS KNOWN AS THE DOPPLER SHIFT
 TRANSONIC FLIGHT
AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS THE AIRFLOW OVER THE
AEROFOILS CHANGES PRESSURE BUT NOT ITS
DENSITY. IT IS TERMED INCOMPRESSIBLE.
AT HIGH SPEEDS BOTH THE AIR PRESSURE AND
DENSITY CHANGES AND IS CALLED THE
COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECT.
AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS THE AIRFLOW OVER
THE AEROFOIL SLOWS DOWN AND
COMPRESSES AS IT FLOWS OVER THE
AEROFOIL.
WHEN THE AIR COMPRESSES ITS PRESSURE
AND DENSITY BOTH INCREASE.
 TRANSONIC FLIGHT
DURING THE TRANSONIC STAGE SOME OF THE
AIR FLOWING OVER THE AIRCRAFT WILL
BECOME SUPERSONIC, WHILE THE REST WILL
REMAIN SUBSONIC.
AS THE AIRCRAFT APPROACHES THE SPEED OF
SOUND, THE PRESSURE WAVES AHEAD OF IT,
WILL BE TRAVELLING AT THE SAME SPEED
AND ARE THEREFORE RELATIVELY STATIC.
THEY CONTINUE TO ACCUMULATE AND FORM
A BOW (SHOCK) WAVE IN FRONT OF THE
AIRCRAFT. IT IS THIS WAVE THAT THE
AIRCRAFT MUST BREAK THROUGH TO
BECOME TOTALLY SUPERSONIC.
 SUBSONIC FLOW

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH A VENTURI

CONVERGING DIVERGING
INCREASING VELOCITY DECREASING VELOCITY
DECREASING PRESSURE INCREASING PRESSURE
CONSTANT DENSITY CONSTANT DENSITY
 SUPERSONIC FLOW

SUPERSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH A VENTURI

CONVERGING DIVERGING
DECREASING VELOCITY INCREASING VELOCITY
INCREASING PRESSURE DECREASING PRESSURE
INCREASING DENSITY DECREASING DENSITY
 TRANSONIC FLIGHT
PRESSURE WAVE
BOW WAVE

DIRECTION OF
FLIGHT
TRANSONIC FLIGHT
PRESSURE WAVES TRAVELLING
AT THE SAME SPEED OF THE
AIRCRAFT
 TRANSONIC FLIGHT
BOW WAVE CONTINUES TO BUILD

THERE IS NO SOUND AS THE AIRCRAFT APPROACHES

 TRANSONIC FLIGHT

BOW WAVE

PRESSURE WAVES BUILDING UP ON AN AIRCAFT AEROFOIL

 SUPERSONIC FLIGHT
ONCE THE AIRCRAFT IS SUPERSONIC ALL
PARTS ARE CONSIDERED TO BE ABOVE THE
SPEED OF SOUND AND IT WILL BE TRAVELLING
FASTER THAN THE SOUND WAVES IT
GENERATES.
AN INFINITE NUMBER OF PRESSURE WAVES ARE
PRODUCED AND FORM A CONE SHAPED SHOCK
WAVE CALLED THE MACH CONE.
THE SHAPE OF THIS CONE CHANGES AS THE
SPEED OF THE AIRCRAFT CHANGES. IT
BECOMES MORE ACUTE THE FASTER THE
AIRCRAFT GOES.
 SUPERSONIC FLIGHT
PRESSURE WAVE

DIRECTION OF
FLIGHT
 SUPERSONIC FLIGHT

AIRCRAFT TRAVELLING FASTER THAN THE PRESSURE WAVES

 SUPERSONIC FLIGHT

PRESSURE WAVES BUILDING BEHIND THE AIRCARFT

 SUPERSONIC FLIGHT

THE NUMBER OF PRESSURE WAVES PRODUCED IS INFINITE

 SUPERSONIC FLIGHT

MACH CONE

THE PRESSURE WAVES PRODUCE A MACH CONE

 SUPERSONIC FLIGHT

MACH CONE

THE FASTER THE AIRCRAFT FLIES THE SHALLOWER THE MACH CONE
BECOMES
 MACH NUMBER
THE MACH NUMBER IS A RATIO OF THE TRUE
AIRSPEED OF THE AIRCRAFT AND THE LOCAL
SPEED OF SOUND AT A GIVEN ALTITUDE.
AN AIRCRAFT TRAVELLING AT THE SPEED OF
SOUND IS SAID TO BE TRAVELLING AT MACH 1.
TWICE THE SPEED IS MACH 2 AND HALF THE
SPEED OF SOUND IS TRAVELLING AT MACH 0.5.

SUBSONIC FLOW - MACH NUMBERS BELOW 0.75

TRANSONIC FLOW - MACH NUMBERS 0.75 TO 1.2
SUPERSONIC FLOW - MACH NUMBERS 1.2 TO 5.0
HYPERSONIC FLOW - MACH NUMBERS ABOVE 5.0
 CRITICAL MACH NUMBER
THE AIR FLOWING OVER THE TOP OF A WING
IS FASTEST AT THE THICKEST PART OF THE
CHORD. IT IS THE POINT WHERE THE AIR IS
ACCELERATING MOST.
AS THE AIRCRAFT INCREASES SPEED THIS AIR
WILL TRAVEL AT MACH 1, EVEN THOUGH THE
REST OF THE AIRCRAFT IS STILL AT SUBSONIC
SPEEDS.
AIRCRAFT DESIGNERS WILL CALCULATE THE
SPEED OF THE AIRCRAFT WHEN THE AIRFLOW
AT SOME POINT ON THE WING FIRST REACHES
MACH 1. THIS SPEED IS CALLED ‘THE CRITICAL
MACH NUMBER’.
 CRITICAL MACH NUMBER
NON SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT WILL NORMALLY
BE LIMITED TO A MAXIMUM SPEED SET BELOW
THE CRITICAL MACH NUMBER.
A THICK WING WILL WILL CAUSE THE AIRFLOW
TO SPEED UP OVER THE CAMBER AND REACH
MACH 1 MORE QUICKLY THAN A THIN WING.
THEREFORE THE CRITICAL MACH NUMBER OF A
THIN WING IS HIGHER THAN A THICK WING.
IN THE TRANSONIC RANGE, AN AIRCRAFT WITH
A THIN WING CAN FLY FASTER THAN AN
AIRCRAFT WITH A THICK WING, BEFORE ANY
ADVERSE EFFECTS ARE FELT.
 ADVERSE TRANSONIC EFFECTS
THE ONSET OF COMPRESSABILITY IS GRADUAL
AND ITS EFFECTS ARE MORE APPARENT AS THE
AIRCRAFT REACHES THE CRITICAL MACH
NUMBER.
THE EFFECTS INCLUDE VIBRATION,
BUFFETING, AN INCREASE IN DRAG, A
DECREASE IN LIFT AND MOVEMENT OF THE
CENTRE OF PRESSURE.
THE AIRCRAFT ACTS AS THOUGH IT WAS NEAR
THE LOW SPEED AND A HIGH ANGLE OF
ATTACK STALL POINT. IT IS REFERRED TO AS
‘SHOCK STALL’
 SHOCK WAVE
IF THE AEROFOILS ANGLE OF ATTACK WAS
ZERO THE SHOCK WAVE WOULD FORM
EQUALLY ON THE UPPER AND LOWER
SURFACES.
IN THE CRUISE AIRCRAFT HAVE A POSITIVE
ANGLE OF ATTACK OF ABOUT 30 AND THE
SHOCK WAVE WILL FORM INITIALLY ON THE
UPPER SURFACE.
THE INITIAL SHOCK WAVE TO FORM IS CALLED
‘THE INCIPIENT SHOCK WAVE’
THE WAVE EXTENDS OUTWARDS AT RIGHT
ANGLES TO THE AEROFOIL SURFACES AND IS
CALLED THE ‘NORMAL SHOCK WAVE’.
 SHOCK WAVE

SUPERSONIC FLOW NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

SUBSONIC FLOW

SEPARATION

AT MACH 0.77
 SHOCK WAVE
THE SHOCK WAVE CAUSES THE AIFLOW OVER
THE UPPER SURFACE TO DECELERATE TO
SUBSONIC SPEED, RESULTING IN AN INCREASE
IN PRESSURE.
AIRFLOW SEPARATION WILL START FROM
THIS POINT. THE AIRFLOW BECOMES
TURBULENT AND THERE IS A RAPID INCREASE
IN DRAG AND A LOSS OF LIFT. CONTROL
EFFECTIVENESS IS ALSO REDUCED.
SEVERE BUFFETING IS LIKELY AND COULD
LEAD TO A ‘SHOCK STALL’.
 SHOCK WAVE

SUPERSONIC FLOW NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

SUBSONIC FLOW

SEPARATION

NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

AT MACH 0.82
 SHOCK WAVE

SUPERSONIC FLOW

NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

SHOCK INDUCED
SEPARATION
AT MACH 0.95
 SHOCK WAVE
THE EXTRA DRAG IS CALLED ‘SHOCK DRAG’.
AS THE AIRCRAFT’S SPEED INCREASES THE
SHOCK WAVE MOVES AFT. A SECOND WAVE
FORMS ON THE LOWER SURFACE.
AS THE AIRCRAFT REACHES THE UPPER
TRANSONIC RANGE BOTH SHOCK WAVES MOVE
AFT AND ATTACH AT THE TRAILING EDGE.
A FURTHER INCREASE IN SPEED WILL RESULT IN
THE BOW WAVE FORMING AHEAD OF THE
AEROFOIL AND THE AIRFLOW OVER THE WING
BECOMES SUPERSONIC.
THE ADVERSE TRANSONIC EFFECTS WILL BE
ELIMINATED.
 SHOCK WAVE

SUPERSONIC FLOW

NORMAL SHOCK
WAVE

SUBSONIC FLOW

BOW WAVE
AT MACH 1.05
 EFFECTS OF MACH NUMBER ON LIFT
MAXIMUM LIFT IS UP TO M 0.81

LIFT INCREASES AS
THE AIRCRAFT
BECOMES
SUPERSONIC

L
I
F
T
ANGLE OF
ATTACK AT 20

0.5 1.0 1.5

MACH NUMBER
LIFT DRASTICALLY DROPS AS THE CRITICAL MACH NUMBER IS APPROACHED
 EFFECTS OF MACH NUMBER ON DRAG
DRAG INCREASES DRASTICALLY UP TO M 0.98

D
R
A
G
ANGLE OF
ATTACK AT 20

0.5 1.0 1.5

DRAG STARTS
MACH NUMBER TO INCREASE
AT M 0.75
SHOCK WAVE
SHOCK WAVE
SHOCK WAVE
Click on picture to play film
 AERODYNAMIC HEATING
ANY AIRCRAFT FLYING THROUGH THE
EARTHS ATMOSPHERE WILL BE SUBJECT TO
SOME FORM OF AERODYNAMIC HEATING,
GENERATED BY FRICTION AS THE AIRCRAFT
PASSES THROUGH THE AIR.
IN ADDITION THE INCREASED PRESSURE ON
THE LEADING EDGES WILL GENERATE
HIGHER TEMPERATURES.
ON SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT AT SUSTAINED
HIGH SPEEDS HEATING CAN BECOME A
PROBLEM.
 AERODYNAMIC HEATING
THE HEATING OF THE AIRCRAFT WILL CAUSE
ITS SKINS AND VARIOUS MATERIALS TO EXPAND
AT DIFFERENT RATES.
AN AIRCRAFT FLYING AT MACH 2 THE FRICTION
OF THE AIR PASSING AROUND IT HEATS THE
SKIN CONSIDERABLY.
THE MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE WOULD BE FELT
ON THE AIRCRAFT’S NOSE AND WOULD BE IN
THE REGION OF 1750C.
AIRCRAFT FLYING UNDER THESE CONDITIONS
WOULD REQUIRE TO HAVE THEIR SKINS
TEMPERATURE MONITORED.
 AREA RULE
THIS IS USED FOR THE DESIGN OF HIGH SPEED
AIRCRAFT AND USES THE THEORY THAT IF
THE CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA DOES NOT HAVE
LARGE CHANGES, THE DRAG WILL BE KEPT TO
A MINIMUM.
ONE METHOD OF SMOOTHING OUT THE
CHANGES IN THE CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA IS
TO WASTE THE FUSELAGE AT THE POINT
WHERE THE WINGS ATTACH.
ALTERNATELY THE FUSELAGE CROSS
SECTIONAL AREA COULD BE INCREASED WITH
THE USE OF ENLARGED SECTIONS IN FRONT
AND BEHIND THE WINGS.
AREA RULE
PATTERN IF THE
FUSELAGE WAS NOT
WASTED.

THE SMOOTHER
PATTERN OF
THE AREA RULE
AIRCRAFT.
 AIRFLOW FACTORS ON ENGINES
IN THE CRUISE IF THE AIRFLOW REACHING THE
COMPRESSORS DOES NOT EXCEED MACH 0.5. THEN
A PARALLEL INTAKE CAN BE USED. IF THE AIR
ENTERING THE ENGINE IS ABOVE 0.5 IT WILL
FLAME THE ENGINE OUT.
IF THE AIRCRAFT WAS TO CRUISE BETWEEN
MACH 0.5 AND MACH 1.0, A DIVERGENT DUCT CAN
BE USED. IT WILL REDUCE THE AIR VELOCITY
ENTERING THE COMPRESSORS DOWN TO MACH 0.5
HOWEVER BECAUSE OF THE CHANGES IN THE
PROPERTIES OF THE AIR AT THE SPEED OF SOUND,
IF THE AIRCRAFT IS TO FLY ABOVE MACH 1 THEN
A CONVERGING DUCT WILL BE REQUIRED TO
SLOW THE AIR DOWN.
 SUPERSONIC FLOW

SUPERSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH A VENTURI

CONVERGING DIVERGING
DECREASING VELOCITY INCREASING VELOCITY
INCREASING PRESSURE DECREASING PRESSURE
INCREASING DENSITY DECREASING DENSITY
 AIRFLOW FACTORS ON ENGINES
ONE WAY OF DOING THIS IS, IS TO HAVE AN
ADJUSTABLE INTAKE WHICH CHANGES FROM
DIVERGENT TO CONVERGENT AS THE
AIRCARFT PASSES THROUGH MACH 1.0.
ANOTHER METHOD IS TO HAVE A MOVEABLE
BULLET FAIRING IN THE CENTRE OF THE
INTAKE WHICH EXTENDS OUTWARDS AS THE
AIRCRAFT PASSES THROUGH MACH 1.0. THIS
METHOD REPOSITIONS THE SHOCK WAVE
AROUND THE INTAKE
 SUBSONIC AIR INTAKE

DIVERGENT DUCT ACTUATOR ENGINE

DUMP VALVE - USED AS

AIR SCOOP SPILL VALVE - TO
PREVENT TURBULENCE
 SUPERSONIC AIR INTAKE

CONVERGENT DUCT ACTUATOR ENGINE

DUMP VALVE - OPEN

SPILL VALVE - TO VENT
EXCESS AIRFLOW
SUBSONIC BULLET FAIRING

ENGINE INTAKE ENGINE

BULLET FAIRING
 SUBSONIC BULLET FAIRING

ENGINE INTAKE ENGINE

BOW WAVE

BULLET FAIRING

NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

 EFFECTS OF SWEEPBACK
IN ORDER TO FLY AT HIGH SPEED IN THE
TRANSONIC RANGE, WITHOUT ENCOUNTERING
THE EFFECTS OF COMPRESSION AND SHOCK
WAVES, THE CRITICAL MACH NUMBER NEEDS TO
BE AS HIGH AS POSSIBLE.
ONE WAY OF ACHIEVING THIS IS BY THE USE OF
SWEPT-BACK WINGS. THEY REDUCE THE EFFECT
OF THE SHOCK WAVE BY PRODUCING A THINNER
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD, RAISING THE
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER.
SWEEPBACK NOT ONLY DELAYS THE EFFECTS OF
THE SHOCK WAVE BUT ALSO REDUCES THE
SEVERITY OF THE SHOCK STALL SHOULD IT
OCCUR.
 EFFECTS OF SWEEPBACK
F 10
T
I H
I 9
N C 450 SWEEPBACK
E K 8
N
N E
S 7
E S
S / 6
L
S E
N 5
G
T
4
R H

A O 3
T F STRAIGHT WING
I W
I 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.0
O N
G
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER
 EFFECTS OF SWEEPBACK
ASPECT RATIO = 3

CD
STRAIGHT WING

300 SWEEPBACK

450 SWEEPBACK

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2

MACH NUMBER
 MACH TRIM
AS THE AIRCRAFT APPROACHES THE CRITICAL
MACH NUMBER THE CENTER OF PRESSURE
MOVES, THE WING STARTS TO GENERATE LESS
LIFT WITH MORE DRAG.
USUALLY THE RESULT IS THE AIRCRAFT PITCHES
NOSE DOWN. (ALSO KNOWN AS TUCK UNDER)
THE MACH TRIM SYSTEM AUTOMATICALLY
COUNTERACTS THIS BY VARYING THE TAIL PLANE
ANGLE IN RELATION TO THE AIRSPEED TO
MAINTAIN A STRAIGHT AND LEVEL ATTITUDE.
THE MACH TRIM SYSTEM WILL NORMALLY
OPERATE IN THE SPEED RANGE MACH 0.68 TO 0.84.