GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Principles and Modern Applications TENTH EDITION

PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE

Chemical
Compounds 3
PHILIP DUTTON
UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AND
BIOCHEMISTRY

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CHAPTER :3 Chemical Compounds

Scanning electron microscope

image of sodium chloride
crystals. Chemical
compounds, their formulas,
and their names are topics
discussed in this chapter.

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3-1 Types of Chemical Compounds and Their Formulas
- Two fundamental kinds of chemical bonds
- Covalent bonds, which involve a sharing of electrons between atoms,
give rise to molecular compounds.
- Ionic bonds, which involve a transfer of electrons from one atom to
another, give rise to ionic compounds.

Molecular Compounds
o is made up of discrete units called molecules
o a small number of nonmetal atoms held together by covalent bonds
o are represented by chemical formulas, symbolic representations that,
at minimum, indicate
othe elements present
othe relative number of atoms
of each element

CCl4 : C and Cl (4) molecular compound

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Molecular compounds

Figure 3-1
Several representations of the compound acetic acid
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Empirical formula:

- the simplest formula for a compound;

- shows the types of atoms present and their relative
numbers.
- the subscripts in an empirical formula are reduced to their
simplest whole-number ratio. P2O5 is an emp. form. for P4O10
 Acetic acid, C2H4O2
 formaldehyde (used to make certain plastics and

resins), CH2O
 and glucose C6H12O6

all have the same emprical formula of CH2O

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Molecular formula:

- Is based on an actual molecule of a compound

- In some cases, the empirical and molecular formulas are
identical, such as CH2O for formaldehyde.
- In other cases, the molecular formula is a multiple of the
empirical formula. E.g : Acetic acid, C2H4O2 , (CH2O)2

Empirical and molecular formulas tell us the combining ratio

of the atoms in the compound, but they show nothing about
how the atoms are attached to each other.

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Structural formula:

-shows the order in which atoms are bonded together in a

molecule and by what types of bonds

4 H bonds – 3 (C-H), 1 (O-

H)
2 O , 1 (C=O), 1 (C-O)

The covalent bonds in the structural formula are represented

by lines or dashes (-) . One of the bonds is represented by a
double dash (=) and is called a double covalent bond,
stronger and tighter than a single bond

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Condensed Structural formula:

- written on a single line, is an alternative, less

cumbersome way of showing how the atoms of a
molecule are connected.
CH3COOH or CH3CO2H

- Condensed structural formulas can also be used to

show how a group of atoms is attached to another
atom.
methylpropane, C4H10 CH3CH(CH3)CH3
CH(CH3)3

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line-angle formula ( line structure )

- used to represent organic compounds

- relatively quick and simple to draw
- lines represent chemical bonds.
- A carbon atom exists wherever a line ends or meets another line, and
the number of H atoms needed to complete each carbon atoms four
bonds are assumed to be present.
- The symbols of other atoms or groups of atoms and the bond lines
joining them to C atoms are written explicitly.

Testosterone

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 Ball-and-stick models
- Molecules occupy space and have a three-
dimensional shape, but empirical and
molecular formulas do not convey any
information about the spatial arrangements

-of atoms. formulas can sometimes show this, but usually the only
Structural
satisfactory way to represent the three-dimensional structure of molecules
is with models.
- In a ball-and-stick model, atoms are represented by small balls, and the
bonds between atoms by sticks.
- Such models help us to visualize distances between the nuclei of atoms
(bond lengths) and the geometrical shapes of molecules.
- Ball-and-stick models are easy to draw and interpret, but they can be
somewhat misleading. Chemical bonds are forces that draw atoms in a
molecule
Slide 10 of 32 into direct contact. The
General atomsChapter
Chemistry: are 3not held apart
Copyrightas implied
© 2011 by a
Pearson Canada Inc.
Space-filling model
- shows that the atoms in a molecule occupy
space and that they are in actual contact
with one another.
- certain computer programs generate
images of space-filling models
- A space-filling model is a more accurate
representation of the size and shape of a
molecule because it is constructed to scale
(that is, a nanometer size molecule is
magnified to a millimeter or centimeter
scale).

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-Different colors are used to distinguish
the various types of atoms in ball-and-
stick and space-filling models

- the colored spheres are of different

sizes,
which correspond to the size differences
between the various atoms in the
periodic table.

Figure 3-3
Color scheme for use in molecular models

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Structural formula ball and stick model space filling
model

Visualizations of (a) butane, (b) methylpropane, and (c)

Figure 3-2
testosterone
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CONCEPT ASSESSMENT
Represent the succinic acid molecule, HOOCCH2CH2COOH
through molecular, empirical, structural, line-angle formulas and ball
and stick model representation.
C4H6O4

C2H3O2

HOOC-(CH2)2-COOH

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Ionic Compounds
• Chemical combination of a metal and a nonmetal usually
results in an ionic compound.
• An ionic compound is made up of positive and negative ions
joined together by electrostatic forces of attraction
• Atoms of almost all elements can gain or lose electrons to
form charged species called ions.
• Compounds composed of ions are known as ionic
compounds.
+ Metals tend to lose electrons to form positively charged
ions called cations.
- Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form negatively
charged ions called anions.

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 - An extended array of Na+ and Cl- ions. Each Na+ ion in
sodium chloride is surrounded by six Cl- ions, and vice versa,
and we cannot say that any one of these six ions belongs
exclusively to a given ion. Yet, the ratio of to ions in sodium
chloride is 1:1. we arbitrarily select a combination of one Na+
ion and one Cl- ion as a formula unit.
Na+, Cl- - The formula unit of an ionic compound is the smallest
electrically neutral collection of ions. The simplest formula
Monatomic ions, each consists of a single ionized
unit is NaCl
atom.
Na+, Cl- , Mg2+

Polyatomic ion, is made up of two or more atoms.

Nitrate ion, NO3- Mg (NO3- )2

FIGURE 3-4
Portion of an ionic crystal and a formula unit of NaCl

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3-2 The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds
Formula mass
the mass of a formula unit in atomic mass units (u) The terms formula
Molecular mass mass
and molecular mass
mass of a molecule in atomic mass units. have essentially the
Weighted average mass same meaning,
add up the weighted-average atomic masses although when
referring to ionic
Exact Mass compounds, such as
add up the isotopic masses (see mass spectrometry)NaCl and MgCl2
Formula mass is the
proper term

molecular mass H2O = 2(atomic mass H) + (atomic

mass O)
= 2(1.00794 u) + 15.9994 u
= 18.0153 u
formula mass MgCl2 = atomic mass Mg + 2(atomic
mass Cl)
= 24.3050 u + 2(35.453 u)
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= 95.211 u
General Chemistry: Chapter 3 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
 Mole of a Compound
KEEP IN MIND
A mole: amount of substance having the same
number of elementary entities as there are that although
atoms in exactly 12 g of pure carbon-12. molecular mass and
molar mass sound
similar and are
A mole of compound is an amount of compound related, they are not
the same. Molecular
containing Avogadro’s number of formula units or
mass is the
molecules. weighted-average
mass of one
The molar mass is the mass of one mole of molecule expressed
in atomic mass units,
compound u. Molar mass is the
- one mole of molecules of a molecular compound mass of Avogadro’s
number of molecules
1 and
mol H2O = 18.0153 g H2O = 6.02214 * 1023 H2O molecules expressed in grams
per mole, The two
- one mole of formula units of an ionic compound. terms have the
1 mol MgCl2 = 95.211 g MgCl2 = 6.02214 * 1023 MgCl2
formula units same numerical
value but different
units. g/mol.

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 Conversion factors

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Mole of an Element
But the atoms of some elements are
joined together to form molecules.
H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2,I2, P4, S8

The existence of an element in more

than one molecular form, referred to as
allotropy.
Thus, oxygen exists in two allotropic
forms, the predominantly abundant
diatomic oxygen, and the much less Molecular forms of elemental
abundant allotrope ozone, The molar sulfur and phosphorus. In a
mass of ordinary dioxygen is 31.9988 g sample of solid sulfur, there are
and that of ozone is 47.9982 g O3/mol O3 eight sulfur atoms in a sulfur
molecule. In solid white
phosphorus, there are four
Figure 3-5
phosphorus atoms per
molecule.
Molecular forms of elemental sulfur and phosphorus

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 3-3 Composition of Chemical Compounds

Halothane C2HBrClF3

Mole ratio nC/nhalothane

Mass ratio mC/mhalothane

M(C2HBrClF3) = 2MC + MH + MBr + MCl + 3MF

= (2 x 12.01) + 1.01 + 79.90 + 35.45 + (3 x 19.00)
= 197.38 g/mol
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Calculating Percent Composition from a Chemical
Formula
1. Determine the molar mass of the compound. This is the
denominator in equation (3.1).
2. Determine the contribution of the given element to the molar
mass. This product of the formula subscript and the molar mass of
the element appears in the numerator of equation (3.1).
3. Formulate the ratio of the mass of the given element to the
mass of the compound as a whole. This is the ratio of the
numerator from step 2 to the denominator from step 1.
4. Multiply this ratio by 100% to obtain the mass percent of the
element

The mass composition of a compound is the collection of mass

percentages of the individual elements in the compound

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Establishing Formulas from Experimentally Determined
Percent Composition of Compounds

5 Step approach:
1. Choose an arbitrary sample size (100g).
2. Convert masses to amounts in moles.
3. Write a formula.
4. Convert formula to small whole numbers.
5. Multiply all subscripts by a small whole number to make the
subscripts integral.

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Slide 29 of 32 General Chemistry: Chapter 3
 Combustion Analysis

After combustion,
- all the carbon atoms in the sample are found in the CO2.
- all the H atoms are in the H2O. Moreover, the only source of the carbon
and hydrogen atoms was the sample being analyzed.
- Oxygen atoms in the CO2 and H2O could have come partly from the
sample and partly from the oxygen gas consumed in the combustion.
Thus, the quantity of oxygen in the sample has to be determined
indirectly
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Figure 3-6
Apparatus for combustion analysis

water vapor by magnesium perchlorate, and

carbon dioxide gas by sodium hydroxide

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 3-4 Oxidation States: A Useful Tool in
Describing Chemical Compounds

Metals tend to lose Non-metals tend to

electrons. gain electrons.
Na Na+ + e- Cl + e- Cl-

Reducing agents Oxidizing agents

We use the Oxidation State to keep track of the number of electrons that
have been gained or lost by an element.

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General Chemistry: Chapter 3
S8 For an atom of a free element, the oxidation state is 0 (rule 1).

Cr2 O7 The sum of all the oxidation numbers in the ion is -2 (rule 2). The O.S. of each oxygen is -2
(rule 6). Thus, the total for all seven oxygens is -14 . The total for both chromiums must be +12.
Thus, each Cr has an O.S. = +6 .

Cl 2O The sum of all oxidation numbers in the compound is 0 (rule 2). The O.S. of oxygen is - (rule
6). The total for the two chlorines must be +2. Thus, each chlorine must have O.S. = +1.

KO2 The sum for all the oxidation numbers in the compound is 0 (rule 2). The O.S. Of potassium is
+1 (rule 3). The sum of the oxidation numbers of the two oxygens must be -1. Thus, each oxygen
must have O.S. = - 1/2 .

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S2 O3-2  The sum of all the oxidation numbers in the ion is -2 (rule 2). The O.S. of oxygen
is -2 (rule 6). Thus, the total for three oxygens must be -6 . The total for both sulfurs
must be +4. Thus, each S has an O.S. = +2 .

Hg 2 Cl 2 The O.S. of each Cl is -1 (rule 7). The sum of all O.S. is 0 (rule 2). Thus, the total
for two Hg is +2 and each Hg has O.S. = +1.

KMnO 4 The O.S. of each O is -2 (rule 6). Thus, the total for 4 oxygens must be -8 . The K
has O.S. = +1 (rule 3). The total of all O.S. is 0 (rule 2). Thus, the O.S. of Mn is +7.

H 2CO The O.S. of each H is +1 (rule 5), producing a total for both hydrogens of +2. The
O.S. of O is -2 (rule 6). Thus, the O.S. of C is 0, because the total of all O.Ss. is 0 (rule 2).

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3-5 Naming Compounds:
Organic and Inorganic Compounds
-different compounds may have the same formula. In these instances,
we will find it essential to distinguish among compounds by name.

- If all compounds were referred to by a common or trivial name, such as

water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), or glucose (C6H12O6) we would have to learn
millions of unrelated names, an impossibility.
What we need is a systematic method of assigning names:
Nomenclature

-We cannot give two substances the same name,

yet we do want some similarities in the names
of similar substances
Lead (IV) oxide Lead (II) oxide
-Compounds formed by carbon and hydrogen or PbO2 PbO
carbon and hydrogen together with oxygen, Figure 3-7 Two oxides of lead
nitrogen, and a few other elements are :
Organic compounds:
- has its own set of nomenclature rules.

- Compounds that do not fit this description are inorganic compounds

3-6 Names and Formulas of Inorganic
Compounds
Binary Compounds of Metals and Nonmetals
Binary compounds are those formed between two elements. If one of
the elements is a metal and the other a nonmetal, the binary compound
is usually made up of ions; that is, it is a binary ionic compound. To
name a binary compound of a metal and a nonmetal,
- write the unmodified name of the metal
- then write the name of the nonmetal, modified to end in
–ide

Ionic compounds, though made up of positive and negative ions, must be

electrically neutral
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 some metals may form several ions, it is important to distinguish
between them in naming their compounds.
Fe+2 and Fe+3 iron(II) ion, and iron(III) ion

the Roman numeral immediately following the name of the metal

indicates its oxidation state or simply the charge on the ion. Thus,
is iron(II) chloride, while is iron(III) chloride.

 two different word endings to distinguish between two binary

compounds containing the same two elements but in different
proportions, such as
Cu2O and CuO
cuprous oxide cupric oxide
FeCl2 ferrous chloride FeCl3 is ferric chloride

use the – ous ending for the lower oxidation state of the
metal
– ic for the higher oxidation state.

Several inadequacies.
Do not help in naming the four oxides of vanadium: VO, and
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EXAMPLE 3-8 Write formulas for the compounds barium oxide, calcium
fluoride, and iron(III) sulfide, lithium oxide, tin(II) fluoride, and lithium nitride.
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Binary Compounds of Two Non-Metals
 If the two elements in a binary compound are both nonmetals instead of a
metal and a nonmetal, the compound is a molecular compounds
usually write the positive OS element first. E.g. HCl hydrogen chloride

 Some pairs of nonmetals form more than one

compound
mono 1 penta 5
SO2 = sulfur dioxide
di 2 hexa 6
SO3 = sulfur trioxide
tri 3 hepta 7 B2Br4 = diboron tetrabromide
tetra 4 octa 8

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 Table 3.4

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 Binary Acids
Acids produce H+ when dissolved in water.
They are compounds that ionize in water.
A binary acid is a two-element compound of hydrogen and a nonmetal.

H2S(aq) = hydrosulfuric acid

HI(aq) = hydroiodic acid
HCl(aq) = hydrochloric acid
HBr(aq) = hydrobromic acid
HF(aq) = hydrofluoric acid
The symbol (aq) signifies aqueous solution.

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Polyatomic Ions
In polyatomic ions, two or more atoms are joined together by
covalent bonds. These ions are common, especially among the
nonmetals.

Table 3.5

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1. Polyatomic anions are more common than polyatomic cations. The
most familiar polyatomic cation is the ammonium ion, NH4+ .

2. Very few polyatomic anions carry the -ide ending in their names. Of
those listed, only (hydroxide ion) and (cyanide ion) do. The common
endings are -ite and -ate, and some names carry prefixes, hypo- or per-.

3. An element common to many polyatomic anions is oxygen, usually in

combination with another nonmetal. Such anions are called oxoanions.

4. Certain nonmetals (such as Cl, N, P, and S) form a series of oxoanions

containing different numbers of oxygen atoms. Their names are related
to the oxidation state of the nonmetal atom to which the O atoms are
bonded, ranging from hypo- (lowest) to per- (highest) according to the
following scheme.

Increasing oxidation state of nonmetal 

hypo___ite, _______ite, _________ate, per___ate

Increasing number of oxygen atoms 

5. All the common oxoanions of Cl, Br, and I carry a charge of ( - 1 ).

6. Some series of oxoanions also contain various numbers of H atoms

and are named accordingly. For example HPO42- , is the hydrogen
phosphate ion
and the H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate ion.

7. The prefix thio- signifies that a sulfur atom has been substituted for
an
oxygen atom. (The sulfate ion has one S and four O atoms; thiosulfate
ion
OXOACIDS:
has two S and three O atoms.)
The majority of acids are ternary compounds. They contain three
different elements- hydrogen and two other nonmetals.
 If one of the nonmetals is oxygen, the acid is called an oxoacid.
Think of oxoacids as combinations of hydrogen ions, H+ and
oxoanions.
 The scheme for naming oxoacids is similar to that outlined for
oxoanions, except that the ending -ous is used instead of –ite and -ic
instead of –ate.
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Some Compounds of Greater Complexity:
Some complex substances: Hydrates.
In a hydrate, each formula unit of the compound has associated with it a
certain number of water molecules. This does not mean that the
compounds are wet, however. The water molecules are incorporated in
the solid structure of the compound. The formula shown below signifies six
H2O molecules
CoCl per
• 6 formula unit of CoCl
H O cobalt(II) 2 .
chloride
2 2
hexahydrate.
129.839 u + (6 * 18.0153 u) = 237.931 u.
18.02 g H2O
6 mol H2O X
1 mol H2O
%H2O = = 45.45% H2O
x 100%
237.9 g CoCl2• 6 H2O

The water present in compounds as water of

hydration can generally be removed, in part or
totally, by heating.
- When the water is totally removed, the resulting
Figure 3-8 Effect of
compound is said to be anhydrous (without water).
moisture on CoCl2.
- Anhydrous compounds can be used as water
Blue anhydrous CoCl2
absorbers.
Pink hexahydrate
- CoCl2 gains and loses water quite readily and
CoCl2• 6 H2O
indicates this through a color change. This fact can
3-7 Names and Formulas of Organic
Compounds
Organic compounds abound in nature
- Fats, carbohydrates and proteins  foods.
- Propane, gasoline, kerosene, oil  fuels.
- Drugs and plastics  chemical industries

-Carbon atoms form chains and rings, act as the framework of

molecules.

-All organic compounds contain carbon atoms; almost all contain

hydrogen atoms; and many common ones also have oxygen,
nitrogen, or sulfur atoms.

- These possibilities allow for an almost limitless number of

-There are
different millions
organic of organic Organic
compounds. compounds, many comprising
compounds are mostlyhighly
complex molecules.
molecular; a few are Their
ionic. names are equally complicated.
- A systematic approach to naming these compounds is crucial,
and the rules for naming inorganic compounds are of little use
here.
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Hydrocarbons:

-Compounds containing only carbon

and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
-Hydrocarbons containing only single
bonds are called alkanes.
-The simplest alkane is methane,
followed by ethane, then propane

The names of the alkanes are composed of

two parts:
1- a word stem and the
2- ending (suffix) –ane- indicating
that the molecule is an alkane
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Alkenes:
-Hydrocarbon molecules with one or more double bonds between
carbon atoms
- The simplest of the alkenes is ethene, its name consists of the
stem eth- and the ending -ene. Benzene, C6H6 is a molecule with
six carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal ring

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Isomers:
Butane and Methylpropane
have the same molecular
formula, C4H10 but different
structural formulas.

Isomers have the same molecular formula but have

different arrangements of atoms in space
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Functional Groups
-Functional groups are individual atoms or groupings of atoms
that are attached to the carbon chains or rings of organic
molecules and give the molecules their characteristic
properties.

- Compounds with the same functional group generally have

similar properties.

- The – OH group in alcohols is one of the many functional

groups found in organic compounds

- The – OH group is called the hydroxyl group. The suffix -ol

designates the presence of the - OH group in a class of organic
molecules called alcohols.

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Visualizations of some alcohols

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Another important functional group is the carboxyl group,
-COOH

-The hydrogen
attached to one of
the O atoms in a
carboxyl group is
ionizable or acidic.
- Compounds
containing the
carboxyl group are
called carboxylic
acids.

Figure 3-11
The carboxyl group and visualizations of two carboxylic acids

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 a) alkane, butane
b) Chloro alkane, 2-chloro butane
c) Carboxylic acid, propanoic acid
d) Alcohol, 3-pentanol

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A) B)
a) alkane, propane a) alcohol, 2-propanol
b) Chloro alkane, 1-chloro propane b) Carboxylic acid, butanoic acid
c) Carboxylic acid, butanoic acid Also contains alcohol
c) Carboxylic acid, propanoic acid,
d) Alkene, 2-butene also contains chloride,
chloro carbocylic acid

d) Alkene, contains Br. Bromoalkene.

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 a) alkane, pentane
b) Floro alkane, 2-floro butane
c) Carboxylic acid, propanoic acid
d) Alcohols, 3-pentanol

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A) B)

a) 2-propanol a) 2-chloro propane

b) 1-iodopropane b) 1,4-dichlorobutane
c) 2-methyl propanoic acid
c) 3-methyl butanoic acid
d) propene

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 A) (a) pentane: CH3(CH2)3CH3
(b) ethanoic acid: CH3CO2H
(c) 1-iodooctane: ICH2(CH2)6CH3
(d) 1-pentanol: CH2(OH)(CH2)3CH3

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 End of Chapter Questions
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Participate in your learning process!
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