Unit -1

Fundamentals
of Technical
Communication

Presentation By-

Anshu Singh
Contents

– Technical Communication: Features; Distinction between General and Technical

Communication
– Language as a tool of Communication
– Dimensions of Communication: Reading & comprehension
– Technical writing: sentences; Paragraph
– Technical style: Definition, types & Methods
– The flow of Communication: Downward; upward, Lateral or Horizontal
– Barriers to Communication
Role of communication

To understand the role of communication in business, it is first essential to note how much
communication business requires.
Communication is a means by which
i) behavior is modified
ii) change is effected
iii) information is made productive
iv) goals are achieved
“COMMUNICATION IS THE KEY”

Look around and you will find people involved in several activities, which involve
– Informal conversations
– Meetings
– Presentations
– Phone calls
– Tele-conferencing
– Video-conferencing
– Gossiping
– Net surfing
– Chatting and so on….
Defining communication

– The word communication is derived from the Latin word Communicare which means “to
share or to participate”.
– It includes both the act of communicating as well as the message to be communicated.
– “Communication is a process of sharing information”. The word process suggests that
communication exists as a flow through a sequence or series of steps.
Some definitions of Communication

– “The activity or process of expressing ideas and feelings or of giving people

information”. – The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary

– “Communication is the transfer of information and understanding from one person to

another person. It is a way of reaching others with facts, ideas, thoughts and values.” –
Keith Davis

– “Communication is a behavior that results in an exchange of meaning.” – American

Management Association. AMA believes meaning to be one of the major components of
communication.
Characteristics of communication

– Interchange of information – It is a two-way process. The exchange can be between two

or more persons. It may be at the individual or the organizational level.
– Continuous process – The people with whom communication is held, its content and
nature, and the situation in which communication is held – all keep changing.
– Mutual understanding – The receiver should receive and understand the message in the
manner in which the sender intended him to.
– Response or reaction – The process of communication is incomplete without a response
from the receiver.
– Universal function – It covers all levels of authority
Characteristics of communication

– Social activity – it involves the effort of people to get in touch with one another and to
make them understood. The process by which people attempt to share meaning and relate
to one another is a social activity.
– The same holds true for business communication. It involves the effort of people to get in
touch with one another and to make them understood. The process by which people
attempt to share meaning and relate to one another is, thus, a social activity.
Communication is a dynamic

– Communication is a dynamic interactive process that involves the effective

transmission of facts, ideas, thoughts, feelings, and values. It is not passive and
does not just happen. We actively and consciously engage in communication in
order to develop the information and understanding required for effective group
functioning. It is dynamic because it involves a variety of forces and activities
interacting over a period of time.
Purpose /Function /Objectives of communication

– Exchange of information – The employees receives different instructions and orders

from their superiors and the juniors give suggestions or information to their superiors.
– Persuasion – Executives use written and oral modes of communication to initiate
business with customers and other business concerns.
– Co-ordinate endeavors – Communication is essential in coordinating the activities of
different persons engaged in running a business.
– Develop good industrial relations – Communication helps grow good industrial
relations as it conveys the feelings, notions, opinions, beliefs and view points of one party
to the other party.
Purpose /Function /Objectives of
communication

– Develop managerial skills – Managers expand their reservoir of knowledge through

communication of facts, ideas, opinions, information, feelings etc., about the various
working groups in their organization.

 Counseling – Seniors counsel the subordinate staff from time to time whenever they face
some difficulty at their work place.

 Implementation of Policies – The organization formulates various policies and programs

to increase the efficiency of its workers, to raise production, and to boost the morale of its
employees. Effective communication can impart force to the policies and the programs to
translate them into action.
Purpose /Function /Objectives of
communication

– Transmission – Communication in a business organization helps in transmitting

business messages from one person/department to another, discussing a project
or explaining the need of some equipment. Healthy and precise communication
helps in imparting the organizational culture to the employees so that their
behavior can be modified and their attitude can be changed.
Technical communication /
Technical writing Definition
– Technical communication may be defined as the transmission and reception of
facts, figures, ideas and all sorts of scientific and technical information by
professionals of various fields such as engineering, medicine, science, research,
education and space etc.
Technical communication is of two types:
– Written – More formal and objective.
– Oral – Less formal
Technical communication /
Technical writing Definition
– “Technical writing is the practical writing that people do as part of their jobs”,
write Pauley and Riordan.
– Technical written communication is related to trade and commerce and also to
the science, medicine, space and engineering professions. Technical writing
includes all official documents such as reports, proposals, technical articles,
instruction manuals and brochures etc. issued to the juniors or superiors by the
technocrats. In government and non government units, schools and hospitals
people today need technical writing which enables them to maintain their
operations.
Classification of communication

On the basis of expression, communication is of two types –

1) Verbal Communication
2) Non-verbal communication

Verbal communication is further divided into two types

3) Oral communication
4) Written communication
Difference between verbal and non-verbal communication

Some differences listed by Bovee, Thill and Schatzman

Verbal Communication Non-verbal Communication

1) It is very structured. 1) It is less structured and so its more difficult to study. No books
on non-verbal communication can teach how to master the
vocabulary of gestures, expression, etc.

2) Verbal communication is not that spontaneous. 2) Non-verbal communication is comes spontaneously. Ex- we do
not plan to cry when we are angry or blush when we are ashamed.
It comes naturally

3) Verbal message may deceive. 3) Non-verbal cues establish the speaker’s honesty. Action speaks
louder than words.

4) Verbal communication is central to official/ formal relationships. 4) Non-verbal communication is central to interpersonal relations
because non-verbal cuesare generally important in emotional
communication.

5) ------ 5) Non-verbal signals are generally used to support the oral verbal
communication.
Process of communication

 The basic components of the process of communication are – sender-encoder, message,

medium, receiver-decoder, and feedback.

 The process of communication can be described with the help of a cycle known as the
communication cycle.
Communication Process / Stages of
Communication / Communication
Cycle
As we know, communication is a dynamic interactive process. It consists of five
steps, that is:

1) Ideation
2) Encoding
3) Transmission
4) Decoding
5) Feed back / Response
 UNDERSTANDING
RECEIVER

DECODING
RECEPTION
USE OF CHANNEL TO FEEDBACK
TRANSMIT MESSAGE
ENCODING

SENDER
THOUGHT
Sender has an Sender
Messages
idea Converts the Receiver
Travels over
idea idea into decodes Receiver
the channel
words message Responds

Ideation Encoding Transmission

Decoding Feedback

Sender

Receiver
Communication Process / Stages of Communication /
Communication Cycle
1) Ideation:
– Process of communication begins with ideation which refers to the formation of idea or selection of
message. It consist of 'what ‘ communication and is concerned with the content the specific message
to be presented . The scope of ideation is generally determined by the sender’s :
1. Knowledge
2. Experience
3. Abilities
4. Purpose of communication
5. Context of the communicative situation
Messages generally have two kinds of content
Logical – Such messages consist of factual information.
Emotional – Such messages consist of feelings and emotions.
Encoding:
It is the second step in communication. It is the process of changing the information into some form
of logical and coded message. It involves –

a) Selecting a language
– Selecting the right language is essential for effective coding, verbal messages need a common
language code, which can be easily decoded by the receiver.

b) Selecting a medium of communication

– It involves making the right choice out of many available options. There are three basic options
for sending interpersonal messages i.e. speaking, writing and non-verbal signs & symbols (body
movements, facial expressions, touching patterns, speech mannerisms).
c) Selecting an appropriate communication form
– Selection of the appropriate communication form largely depends on the sender – receiver
relationship, and need and purpose of the communication. Various communication forms
can be –
– Interpersonal face to face communication.
–  Group Communication
–  Speaker – audience communication
–  Telephonic Communication
–  Written Communication (Reports, Proposals, Memos, Letters, Emails etc.)
Transmission

– It refers to the flow of message over the chosen channel. It involves choosing the

 Proper time (When to communicate)

 Proper place (Where to communicate)
 Proper way (How to communicate)
 Channels of transmission can be internet, fax, telephone, courier service, Television, etc.
Decoding

– Decoding is the process of converting a message into thoughts. It is important to note that
it is the message that is transferred, as meaning can not be transferred from one person to
another. The receiver has to assign meaning to a message in order to understand it. The
process of decoding involves interpretation and analysis of a message. Decoding involves
reading and understanding of the written communication and listening and understanding
of the oral communication.
Feed back / Response

– Response is the last stage in the communication process. It is the action or reaction of the
receiver to the message. Response is the key to communication. It helps the sender know
that that message was received and understood.
NOISE

– Noise is a variety of sound. It means any unwanted sound. Sounds, particularly loud ones,
that disturb people or make it difficult to hear wanted sounds, are noise.
– For example, conversations of other people may be called noise by people not involved in
any of them; any unwanted sound such as dogs barking, neighbours playing loud music,
road traffic sounds, or a distant aircraft in quiet countryside, are noise.
Types of Noise:

– Physical Noise
Sometimes the biggest impediment to clear communication is everyday environmental noise.
This can include loud passersby, music (think talking over a band at a concert), traffic or
children playing. Even a simple phone ringing can distract a listener so that she cannot fully
focus on a conversation. Other physical conditions that can hinder communication are
physical illness, being under the influence of drugs or alcohol, or being tired.
– Semantic Noise
Semantic noise affects communication when people communicate from different playing
fields. In other words, they are working from different understandings, such as different
primary languages, dialects or basic cultural characteristics. Poor handwriting and using
slang can also be semantic noises that complicate effective communication.
– Psychological Noise
Psychological noise can be more difficult to define in a particular situation, as the mental
makeup of every person is different. This type of noise includes concepts like prejudices,
narrow-mindedness and personal bias. Communication can also be difficult if a person is
feeling very emotional -- anger, sadness and even joy can affect how much someone can pay
attention to a conversation or lecture.
Importance of communication

1. Builds trust

2. Promotes teamwork among employees

3. Makes professional interactions possible

4. Directs the flow of information for guidance (downward communication) as well as for
suggestions (upward).

5. Unification between the activities as a work team.

6. Free exchange of information and ideas which promotes scientific temper and
maintenance of professional relations.
 Flow of
communication/channels of
communication
An organization is a group of people associated for business, political, professional, religious, social,
or other purposes. Its activities require human beings to interact and react, that is, to communicate.
They exchange information, ideas, plans, order needed supplies and make decisions, rules,
proposals, contracts, and agreements. All these activities require one skill, that is communication.
So we can say that communication is the "Lifeline" of every organization.
Flow Of Communication

– On the basis of business activities communication is divided into two types in an organization.
They are

1. Internal-operational
2. External-operational
– Internal-operational is divided into four types:-
1. Downward Flow – From higher authority to lower
2. Upward Flow- From lower to higher
3. Horizontal/ Lateral Flow – At the same level
4. Diagonal Flow – Between different departments
Channels of Communication

Flow of Communication

Formal Informal

Downwa horizont
Upward Diagonal
rd al Grapevine
Downward Communication

– Downward communication refers to the communication from the higher level in in

managerial hierarchy to the lower ones. It is a communication from decision makers to
the workers. It is a communication from seniors to their subordinate employees.
– The main function of downward communication is providing direction and control. It
involves the transfer of information, instruction, advice, request, feedback and ideas to
the subordinate staff. It increases staff awareness and facilitates implementation
– New policies
– Guidelines
– Decisions
– Evaluations
– Appraisal
Examples of Downward
Communication
– A communication from General Manager of a company to the branch managers
is an example of downward communication.
Forms of downward
communication may include
– Notes
– Notices
– Memos
– Telephone conversations
– Voice mails
– Emails
– Face to face conversations
Too much down ward communication may lead to reaction from subordinates and can hamper
better employee - employer relationship.
Advantage or merits of downward
communication

– Delegating authority and responsibility: Delegation means entrusting the

subordinates with some responsibilities along with due authority. It is essential
to make the subordinates capable in performing their jobs. Since downward
communication starts form higher level, it helps mangers in delegating authority
and responsibility to the right persons.
– Marinating discipline: Downward communication occurs in conformity with
officially recognized rules and regulations. So it helps in establishing official
discipline in the organization.
Advantage or merits of
downward communication
– Increasing efficiency: Downward communication provides necessary guidance,
orders, instructions and explanations of various complex issues to the
subordinates that ultimately increase the efficiency of the employees.
– Informing organizational plans and procedures: In an organization, the top-
level executives develop the plans, policies, strategies, procedures etc.
downward communication plays a significant role in communicating those
plans, policies, strategies’ and procedures to the lower levels of the organization.
Advantage or merits of
downward communication
– Explaining the complex issues: Sometimes subordinates need explanation of
organizational policies and procedures. In such situations, managers rely on
downward communication to provide necessary explanations and analysis.
– Issuing orders and instructions: Downward communication is the only means to
circulate various orders, instructions, guidance, and advices to the subordinates.
Without downward communication, organization is like a boat without boatman.
– Avoiding by-passing of hierarchy: Downward communication takes place by
following the established chain of command of the organization. Thus, it reduces
the chance of sending message to someone through by-passing the immediate
subordinate.
Disadvantages or demerits of
downward communication

– Time-consuming: Downward communication is a delayed process. In this

communication, information flows through different levels of hierarchy. As a
result, when information reaches to the lower level workers, it may have lost its
significance or utility.
– Distortion of information: Downward communication also suffers form
problem of distortion of message. People have a tendency to modify or
manipulate information. Therefore, information is passed from one individual to
another or form one level to another, authenticity of information is lost.
Disadvantages or demerits
of downward
communication
– Lack of explanation: In most cases, downward communication contains messages
without necessary explanation and clarification. For this reason, subordinates fail to
understand the message accurately.
– Deterioration of relationship: Heavy reliance on downward communication also
deteriorates the labor-management relationships. Because it does not provide any scope
of direct communication between them.
– Lack of feedback: Absence of feedback is another major drawback of downward
communication. The top-level executives usually place little or no importance to the
messages received from subordinates. Superiors hardly seek feedback from the
subordinates. Due to negligence of the superiors, subordinates also seldom send
feedback. As a result, communication becomes ineffective.
Upward Communication

– This type of communication refers to-

I. Communication from subordinates to superiors
II. Communication from employees to management.
III. Communication from workers to decision makers
– Since upward communication involves the transfer of – information, request and
feedback from subordinates to their seniors, it promotes better working
relationships within an organization by giving the subordinate staff opportunities
to share their views and ideas with their supervisors. It facilitates employee
involvement in the decision making process.
Examples of Upward
Communication
– A business report from the branch manager of a company to the managing
director of the company is an example of upward communication.
– Other examples of upward communication include –
1. Business proposals
2. Suggestion box
3. Exit interviews
Advantages of upward
communication
– Development of plan: The information received from subordinate plays
important role to help development of planning of the organization. Providing
suggestions and opinions: By upward communication system, subordinate
takes necessary suggestions and opinions from superiors about the work-related
issues of the organization.
– Motivating to employees: Upward communication system allows lower level
staff to express their attitude or opinion to upper-level staff. As a result, sub-
ordinates are influenced to work more towards fulfillment to target.
Disadvantages of upward
communication

– Changes of information: In upward communication subordinates may change their accurate

information. So, the top executive cannot take an accurate decision.
– Unwillingness: Sometimes subordinates don’t send the information to their superior willingly.
So, the communication system may be disrupted.
– Fear of inefficiency: Generally, superiors make a question about the employees work position and
efficiency. Many employees fear to communicate and share their ideas, constructive suggestions
and opinions with the superiors.
– Flattery: In order to convince the superior bosses, subordinates can take the help of flattery and
for this reason, subordinates may conceal the true and provide incomplete information to top level.
– Delay: It is an important limitation of upward communication is the long and slow movement of
information to the higher authority.
Horizontal or Lateral or
Peer Group Communication
– It takes place between professional peer groups or people working on the same
level of hierarchy.
– It is the communication among workers at the same level
– The main objectives of horizontal communication are
i. Developing teamwork
ii. Promoting group coordination within an organization
Horizontal or Lateral or
Peer Group Communication
– Horizontal communication is less formal and structured than both downward
and upward communication and may be carried out through
– Informal discussions
– Management gossip
– Telephone calls
– Teleconferencing
– Memos
– Routine meetings
Advantages of Horizontal
Communication
– Coordination: Organizational activities are divided into various departments or
groups. Horizontal communication facilities coordination of various
departmental activities so that organization can reach its ultimate goal.
– Reducing Misunderstanding: Misunderstanding and conflict among the
mangers and staffs are very common in organizational life. Horizontal
communication helps to reduce possible misunderstanding and conflict though
meeting, discussion, face to face conversation etc.
Advantages of Horizontal
Communication
– Strengthening group efforts: Group efforts and teamwork are essential
prerequisites for organizational success. Horizontal communication helps in
reducing conflicts, controversies, and differences in opinions and thus
establishes consensus among the managers and workers concerned. This
consensus strengthens group efforts and team spirit in the organization
– Performing interdepartmental communication: Horizontal communication
occurs between people at the same level in various departments. Therefore
interdepartmental communication occurs smoothly.
Advantages of Horizontal
Communication
– Gaining benefits of informal communication: Though horizontal communication
is formal in nature, it enjoys some degree of informality in exchanging information
as the senders and the receivers hold same position, status and honor.
– Distortion-free communication: Horizontal communication is usually free form
distortion. Since the sender and the receiver of horizontal communication can
exchange information directly, there is no possibility of distortion of message.
– Bringing dynamism in workplace: Horizontal communication helps to overcome
misunderstanding and confects among the managers. It creates an environment of
cooperation, teamwork and team spirit. This brings dynamism in performing
organizational activities.
Disadvantages of Horizontal
Communication

– Rivaling attitude: Horizontal communication occurs between the people at the

same rank and position. If there exists any hostility or rivalry between them, they
will not exchange information spontaneously. Moreover, they will conceal their
information intentionally to deprive someone from the real news.
– Interdepartmental conflict: The success of horizontal communication depends
on good relationship between sender and receiver. If there is any conflict, distrust
or suspicion between them, horizontal communication will be ineffective.
– Ignoring vertical communication: More concentration on horizontal
communication may work as substitute of upward and downward communication.
In that case upward and downward communications are ignored.
Diagonal or Cross-wise
Communication
– It is the product of modern changes in information technology and management.
It is basically a response to market needs that demand speed and efficiency.
– Diagonal communication flows in all directions. As the diagonal channel occurs
between people who do not have to follow rigid norms of communication
protocol
Advantages of Diagonal
Communication
– Diagonal communication may speed up the flow of information.
– It can help create a healthy environment and relationship.
– It can also build better coordination among staff members.
– It can help in solving problems easily as different ideas are brought together.
– There will be no distortion of information as individuals are in direct contact
with others.
Disadvantages of Diagonal
Communication
– It can create doubts and uneasiness among superiors who are bypassed as it is
likely to bypass the chain of command.
– Superiors may see diagonal communication as interfering with their work.
– It can easily lead to leakage of information and grapevine.
Grapevine Communication

– If communication is done without maintaining the formalities prescribed by the

organization, it is called informal communication.
– The basis of informal communication is personal or informal relationship
between the members of a group.
– It is also known as grapevine that takes place when the people of an organization
or group, especially of same level or rank gather or meet tighter and discuss
informally.
Grapevine Communication

– According to Bovee and Others, “Grapevine is an informal interpersonal

channel of information not officially sanctioned by the organization.
– Newstrom and K. Davis said, “Grapevine is an informal system that arises
spontaneously from the social interaction of the organization.”
– So, grapevine is an informal, unofficial and personal communication channel or
system that takes place within the organization as a result of rumor and gossip. It
is a complex web of oral information flow linking all the members of the
organization.
Patterns or Types of Grapevine

– Single Strand
– Gossip Chain
– Probability Chain
– Cluster Chain
Single Strand Chain

– The single strand chain involves the passing of information through a line of
persons to the ultimate recipient. In the figure, the person A tells B, who tells C,
who tells D, and so on, till the information has reached most of the persons
involved or concerned.
Gossip Chain

– In the gossip chain, one person

seeks and tells the information to
everyone. This chain is just like the
wheel where one person stays at
the centre and the information
passes along the spokes of the
wheel to others stationed on the
rim. In the following figure, A is at
the center and passes the
information to others staying on the
rim of the wheel
Probability Chain

– The probability chain is a random

process in which someone E
C
transmits the information to others K
H
in accordance with the laws of G I
probability and then these others X
tell still others in a similar way. F B D
This chain may also be called
random process. J
A
Probability
Cluster Chain

– In the cluster chain, a person tells the J

information to the selected persons who
may in turn relay (pass) the information B I
to other selected persons. Most of the
information communication follows this
chain D

C F
Clust A
er
 Grapevin
e
channels
carry
informati
on Creates a
The rapidly. sense of
grapevine unity
is a among
suppleme ADVA the
nt NTAGE employee
s
S
Serves as
an Feedback
emotional obtained
supportiv is quick
e value
6
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Grapevine

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
In general Grapevine is – If information from grapevine is blindly accepted –
1) Reveal some degree of error.
1) Not expensive. 2) Harmful incase it is baseless or imaginary.
2) Rapid. 3) Incomplete information, which may lead to
3) Multidirectional. misunderstanding.
4) A measure of public opinion. 4) Not reliable, as nobody takes the responsibility for
5) If carefully cultivated, is capable of resolving it.
conflicts. 5) At times, cause damage to the organization
6) Promotes unity and solidarity. because of its excessive swiftness.
7) Serves as an outlet for anxieties, worries,
frustration, etc.
8) Voluntary and unforced
Barriers to
Communication
Barriers to Communication

– Communication is one of the most common and essential human activities. Perfect
communication takes place when the receiver understands the message exactly in the way
the sender intends. Quite often miscommunication arises due to one barrier or the other.
Barrier or problems can arise at any stage of the communication.
What is a Barrier ?

– Communication barrier means various disturbances in communication process

which hamper (obstruct) the smooth flow of effective communication.
Classification Of Barriers
Barriers

Intrapersonal Interpersonal Organisational

Intrapersonal Barriers
– Intrapersonal barriers stem from an individual’s attitudes or habits. Individuals are
unique because of their idiosyncracies (unique qualities). This is mainly because of
differences in experience, education and thinking abilities. Each of us interprets the
same information in different ways as our thinking varies. The causes that lead to
intrapersonal barriers are…
 Intrapersonal Barriers

Wrong assumptions Impervious Categories

Differing backgrounds

Varied perceptions Wrong inferences

Categorical Thinking
 Wrong assumptions (suppositions)
Many barriers stem from wrong assumptions. For example, when a doctor tells his
patient that he has to take a medicine only as ‘SOS’, without knowing whether the
patient understands the term or not, he is creating a barrier in his communication.
Here the doctor has made a wrong assumption about his patient’s level of
knowledge. Wrong assumptions generally occur when the sender and receiver do
not have adequate knowledge about each other’s background, or entertain certain
false notions (ideas), which are fixed in their mind. In order to strengthen your
skills as a communicator try to put yourself in the shoes of the listener. This
exercise will prevent making wrong assumptions about the receiver.
Varied perceptions (understanding differently)

Different people have their different views. We all know the story of six blind men of Burma, who visited an
elephant and their description of the elephant on returning from the venture. The elephant is perceived by
each man as a fan, a rope, a wall, a sword, a snake, and a tree. None of the blind men is wrong, as the part of
the elephant body touched by each man was compared with various objects. This is how an individual
perceives reality.
Similarly, individuals in an organization also perceive situations in different ways. Let us take the case of an
argument between two individuals. If you are close to one of them, you are likely to be biased. You may
perceive your friend’s arguments as correct, and hence, may not be able to appreciate his opponent’s point of
view. It is all a matter of perception. The best way to overcome this barrier is to take a wider view of the
issue.
Differing backgrounds

No two persons have a similar background. People vary in terms of their education,
culture, language, environment, age, financial status, etc. Our background plays a
significant role in how we interpret a message. At times, something not
experienced by you earlier will be difficult to interpret or appreciate. Think of a
discussion where somebody talks about his mountaineering expedition experience.
Those people who have had the experience of trekking may be able to appreciate
the talk, but others who have not trekked before may not find it interesting at all.
To overcome this barrier one should know the background of his audience
and use the information accordingly to deliver his message effectively
 Wrong inferences
To draw wrong conclusion about something without knowing the facts can also
lead to communication barrier. For example, you have planned a trip with some of
your friends, suddenly one of your friends could not make the trip, you draw the
conclusion that he has not come due to studies, but the fact is that he had taken ill.
 Impervious (inflexible/Block)
categories
In general we react positively to information only if it is in consonance own views and
attitudes. Conversely, when we receive information that does not
conform (match) to our personal views, habits and attitudes, or appears
unfavorable to us; we tend to react negatively or even disbelieve. Rejection,
distortion and avoidance are three common, undesirable and negative reactions to
unfavorable information.
People who are very rigid in their opinions and are not ready to accept any
view which is different from their own, fall into impervious categories. Such
closed minded people face problem in communicating effectively and are known
as misoneists.
 Categorical thinking

People who feel that they ‘know it all’ are called pansophists. This type of thinking exists among
people who feel that they know everything about a particular subject and therefore refuse to
accept any further information on that topic. For example,in a General Body meeting of your
organization, you are to be briefed about the annual budget. However, you do not pay attention
because you feel you have already been briefed about it by your secretary the previous day.
Later you propose that new vehicles have to be bought. Imagine your embarrassment when you
realize that the topic was discussed and a decision had already been taken in the general body
meeting. This type of thinking can pose a major barrier leading to a failure in communication. In
such instances, the receivers refuse information because of their ‘know-it-all’ attitude.
HOW TO OVERCOME –
1. Don’t be judgmental about the speaker
2. Be empathetic. Try to understand others.
3. Do not assume anything.
4. Stick to the subject
5. Listen and accept others.
 Interpersonal Barriers
Interpersonal barriers creep in as a result of the limitations in the communication
skills of the encoder or decoder, or both. In addition, they may also occur because
of some disturbance in the channel. If two people are involved in communication,
the traits that distinguish them as individuals can be the root cause of a
communication problem. The most common reasons for interpersonal barriers are
 Interpersonal Barriers

Limited vocabulary Cultural variations

Emotional outbursts

Incongruityof verbal and Communication

nonverbal messages selectivity
Poor listening skills

Noise
Limited vocabulary
Inadequate vocabulary can be a major hindrance in communication. At times your
pen falters, or your tongue fumbles as you search for the exact word or phrase. In
your communication, the meanings of your words should be absolutely clear to the
receiver. During your speech if you are at a loss for words, your communication
will be ineffective, and you will leave a poor impression on the audience. On the
other hand, if you have a varied and substantial vocabulary, you can create an
indelible impression on your listeners.
Also remember that merely having a good vocabulary is of no use unless the
communicator knows how to use it. Therefore, one should make constant efforts to
increase one’s vocabulary by regularly reading a variety of books and listening to
native speakers of the language.
 Incongruity of Verbal and
Non-verbal Messages
Inappropriateness between verbal and non-verbal messages also causes barrier in communication. Imagine a situation
where your CEO introduces a newly recruited middle-level manager to other employees. In a small speech, he conveys the
message that he is very delighted to have the new manager appointed in his office. However, his face expression shows just
the opposite of what he is saying. The stark difference between the verbal and non-verbal aspects of his communication
leaves his listeners feeling confused and puzzled. A communicator should acclimatize himself to the communication
environment, think from the angle of the listener, and then communicate. it is important to remember that physical
appearance can have a great impact on any kind of conversation. Guidelines to improve physical appearance are as
follows:
 Dress according to the occasion
 Wear neat and clean clothes
 Choose an appropriate hairstyle
 Wear clean and polished shoes.
 Emotional Outburst
Emotions are integral part of every human being. A moderate level of emotional
involvement intensifies communication. However, excessive emotional
involvement can be an obstacle in communication. For example, extreme anger can
create such an emotionally charged environment that rational discussion is just not
possible. Positive emotions like happiness and excitement also interfere in
communication, but to a lesser extent than negative feelings.
Very often people react negatively. Depending on their nature and situation,
this negative reaction may either be classified as hostile or defensive. Hostility can
be considered as a move to counter-attack the threat, whereas defensiveness is
resistance to it. Both occur in situations where the receiver of the message
perceives some kind of threat. Both these responses have an extremely negative
impact on the communication. Messages are either misinterpreted, ignored, or
overreacted to by people displaying such behaviour. Those who witness such
behaviour are most likely to lower their opinion about the sender of such messages.
Communication Selectivity
If you are the receiver in a communication process, and you pay attention only to a
part of the message, you are imposing a barrier known as communication
selectivity. You do this because you are interested only in that part of the message
which may be of use to you. In such a situation, the sender is not at fault. It is the
receiver who breaks the flow of communication.
Cultural Variations
Effective communication with people of different cultures is challenging.
Communication failure may occur when sender and receiver belong to different
cultures. The sender encodes a message with some meaning but the receiver who
belongs to other culture, decodes some other meaning.
Cultures provide people with different ways of thinking, seeing, hearing, and
interpreting the world. Thus the same words can mean different things to people
from different cultures, even when they talk the "same" language. When the
languages are different, and translation has to be used to communicate, the
potential for misunderstandings further increases
Poor Listening Skills
A common obstacle to communication is poor listening skills. The various
distractions that hinder listening can be emotional disturbances, indifference,
aggressiveness and wandering attention.
Sometimes, an individual is so occupied in his own thoughts and worries
that he is unable to concentrate on listening. If a superior goes on shifting the
papers on his desk while listening to his subordinate, without making eye contact
with the latter, he pays divided attention to the speaker’s message. This divided
attention adversely affects the superior – subordinate relationship, besides
distorting the communication
Noise
Noise interferes greatly in the transmission of signals. Noise is any
unwanted signal which acts as a hindrance in the flow of communication. It is not
necessarily limited to cacophony, but can also occur in visual, audio-visual, written
and physical forms. All these forms of noise communicate irrelevant matter which
may allay the receiver’s interest in the message, even irritate him.
Technical or physical noise refers to the din (sound) of machines, the blare
of music from a stereo system, or other such sounds which make the task of the
listener difficult. Human noise can be experienced when, for instance, employees
gather for a meeting and a member arrives late distracting everybody’s attention.
Disturbance in telephone lines is also an example of technical noise
HOW TO OVERCOME –

 Know your audience before you

communicate with them. Their needs,
perceptions and expectations.
 Try to experience the world from a receiver’s
perspective.
 Be precise and to the point.
 Appreciate and understand cultural
differences.
 Obtain feedback, analyze it and respond.
Organizational Barriers
Communication barriers are not only limited to an individual or two people but
exist in entire organizations. Every organization, irrespective of its size, has its
own communication techniques, and each develops its own communication
network. Irrespective of size, all organizations have communication policies which
describe the protocol to be followed. It is the structure and complexity of this
protocol that usually causes communication barriers.
The main organizational barriers are enumerated below
 Organizational Barriers

Too many Transfer

Stations Negative Tendencies Information overload

Use of Inappropriate
Fear of Superiors media
Too many Transfer Stations
The more links there are in a communication chain, the greater are the chances of
communication failure. The message gets distorted at each link not only because of
poor listening or lack of concentration, but also because of several other reasons.
Some employees may filter out a part of the message which they consider
unimportant. Whatever the reasons for filtering or distorting the message, having
too many transfer stations is always a deterrent to effective communication and
should be avoided. Transfer stations do serve a purpose, but having too many of
them proves counterproductive.
 Fear of Superiors
In rigid structured organizations, fear of the superiors prevents subordinates from
speaking frankly. An employee may not be pleased with the way his boss works
but is unable to put his point across because of losing the good will of his boss. As
a supervisor, it is essential to create an environment which enables people to speak
freely. An open environment is conducive to increasing the confidence and good
will of a communicator. To avoid speaking directly to their boss, some employees
may either shun all communication with their superiors or, at the other extreme,
present all the information that they have. This is because they feel that they would
be viewed in unfavourable light if they left out some vital information. In written
communication, this results in bulky reports where essential information gets
clubbed with unimportant details. Such unfocussed messages result in a lot of time
waste. Such practices need to be eliminated by superiors to ensure that
communication flows effectively in their organizations. Moreover, by encouraging
active participation from their subordinates, senior officers pave the way for more
ideas, resources and solutions to come forth from their juniors.
 Negative tendencies
Many organizations create work groups. While some groups are formed according
to the demands of the task, such as accomplishing a particular project, many other
small groups are also formed for recreational, social, or community purposes.
These groups may be formal or informal, and generally consist of people who
share similar values, attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and behaviour. Nevertheless, on
some occasions, it is possible to have communication barrier due to a conflict of
ideas between members and non-members of a group. Such conflicts pave the way
for negative tendencies in an organization. Once these negative tendencies
develop, they create barrier in inter-personal communication.
However, good managers can take advantage of these situations by
considering these groups not as troublemakers, but as reinforcers of the
organization’s objectives and values. Experienced administrators can even make
these groups organize orientation sessions for new recruits, thereby projecting the
corporate image.
 Use of Inappropriate Media
Some of the common media used in organizations are graphs and charts,
telephones, facsimile machines, boards, e-mail, telephones, films and slides,
computer presentations, teleconferencing, and video conferencing. While choosing
the medium you should keep in mind the advantages, disadvantages and potential
barriers to communication before sending a message, you should consider the
following factors while choosing a medium:
 Time
 Cost
 Type of message
 Intended audience
Usually, a mix of media is best for effective communication. For example, a
telephone call to book an order, followed by a confirmatory letter ensures that
there is no possible misunderstanding of the message
HOW TO OVERCOME –

• Avoid information overload.

• Be open, frank and positive. Informality is useful.
• Obtain feedback, analyze it and respond.
• Repetition of a message through multiple channels helps to remove
barriers
TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

a. Create an open communication environment.

b. Always keep the receiver in mind
c. Avoid having too many transfer stations
d. Be aware of diversity in culture, language etc.
e. Use appropriate non-verbal cues. Select the most suitable medium.
f. Utilize feedback.
g. Be specific.
Language As A
Tool Of
Communication
In order to express his ideas emphatically, man needs some common medium of expression.

Physical gestures or certain noises like crying in anger, weeping or laughing may help a person
to communicate some of his feelings, just as a little baby weeps when he is hungry. In both the
above examples communication takes place without words. But man needs some means of
linguistic communication in order to express his fine ideas and emotions.

Man invented language which helps him to communicate and converse with different
sorts of people. Today it has become an important tool of socialization as well as of trade and
commerce.

Communication is the soul of our life. We need it to survive and effective communication is
made possible with the help of language. Language employs a combination of words to
communicate ideas in a meaningful way.
Characteristics of Language.

– Language is used as a tool for communication because of certain characteristics which it

posses.
Language is Arbitrary

Language is Artificial

Language is Restricted

Language is Abstract

Language is Recursive

Language is Social

Displacement
Language is Arbitrary (Illogical
or random)
– Language is arbitrary (illogical) in the sense that there is no inherent relation between
the words of a language and their meanings or the ideas conveyed by them. There is no
reason why a female adult human being be called a woman in English, aurat in Urdu,
Zen in Persian and Femine in French. The choice of a word selected to mean a particular
thing or idea is purely arbitrary but once a word is selected for a particular reference, it
comes to stay as such. It may be noted that had language not been arbitrary, there
would have been only one language in the world.
Language is Artificial (Manmade)
Language is created by people. It did not exist in isolation or outside the minds of people. It is
created by humans based on their needs.

Language is Restricted (limitations)

When we think and translate our thoughts into language, some meaning is lost in the process.
No symbol or word can transmit our exact perception. Language has its limitations.

Language is Abstract (conceptual):

Language is abstract because it represents generalized ideas of things or thoughts. A word could
represent different ideas at different times. A ‘table’ can be of different shapes and sizes, and still be a
table. Even if you have never seen a table with three legs, you can still identify it as a table. This happens
because the meaning gets associated with symbols and users keep expanding the range of meaning.
Language is Recursive:
Recursion is the characteristics of language which enables one to generate any number of
sentences using the same grammatical pattern. It also allows one to express any idea, thought or
feeling using the same finite vocabulary.

Language is Social:
Language is a set of conventional communicative signals used by humans for communication in
a community. Language in this sense is a possession of a social group, comprising an
indispensable set of rules which permits its members to relate to each other, to interact with each
other, to co-operate with each other; it is a social institution. Language exists in society; it is a
means of nourishing and developing culture and establishing human relations.

Displacement
- This means that the speaker can talk about things which are not present, either spatially or
temporally. For example, human language allows speakers to talk about the past and the future,
as well as the present. Speakers can also talk about things that are physically distant (such as
other countries, the moon, etc.). They can even refer to things and events that do not actually
exist (they are not present in reality) such as the Easter Bunny, the Earth having an emperor, etc.
Features/Style
of
communicatio
n
Features of technical
writing
– Accuracy
– Brevity
– Clarity
– Objectivity
– Impersonal Language
Accuracy

– Accuracy means accuracy of information as well as accuracy of expression. Accuracy of

information demands that the facts should be recorded carefully and appropriately.
Accuracy of expression demands that there should be no errors of grammar, spelling and
punctuation. It also demands precision in the use of words, phrases, sentences and
paragraphs.
– Accuracy means exactness and precision.
Checklist for achieving
accuracy
a) Check facts for accuracy of information
b) Use of simple, familiar and familiar words.
c) Use of exact words and phrases
d) Avoiding excessive use of jargons
e) Avoiding grammatical errors
Brevity

– Brevity is the quality of being brief but comprehensive in expression i.e. giving
maximum information in minimum number of words. Brevity can be achieved by
avoiding wordiness and repetition. Wordiness results from the desire to impress the reader
and repetition results from the desire to be forceful
Checklist for brevity

a) Avoid repetition
b) Avoid using wordy phrases and expressions
c) Do not include unnecessary details
d) Avoid exaggerations
e) Use active voice
f) Use jargons
g) Revise your document thoroughly in order to make it concise.
Clarity

– Clarity is the quality of being unambiguous and easily understood. It is achieved when
the communicator has communicated his or her meaning to the reader or the listener.
Clarity can be achieved by using direct language, specific and concrete words and clear
expressions.
Checklist for achieving clarity

a) Do not use indirect expressions.

b)Use specific words and phrases.
c) Use direct sentences.
d)Avoid exaggeration, artificial eloquence and ornamentation
Objectivity

– Technical communication is not concerned with subjective comments and personal

feelings. The concentration is on an objective and impersonal presentation of facts.
Objectivity can be achieved by using factual and impersonal language.
– Checklist for achieving objectivity:
a) Use appropriate construction.
b) Avoid personal pronouns and expressions
c) Use factual words.
d) Avoid hasty generalizations
Formal language/Impersonal
Language
Formal language refers to the use of formal words, scientific vocabulary, specialized
terminology, and formal phrases and expressions. One should be familiar with the
jargons of one’s professional field.
– Checklist for using formal language:
a) Use formal words
b) Use appropriate scientific phrases
c) Use appropriate technical terms
d) Avoid conversational tone
e) Use standard and formal sentence structures
f) Avoid colloquial and informal words.