Cell

structur
e
Guiding questions
• What are the features
common to all cells and the
features that differ?
• How is microscopy used to
investigate cell structures?
Cells and the functions
of life
• Cytology - deals with facets
of cells.
• Allows to study the smallest
functional units.
 Cell theory
• All living organisms are
composed of cells.
• Cells are the smallest unit
of life.
• Cells come from pre-
existing cells and cannot be
created from non-living
material.
• Matthias Schleiden
• 1838 – observed plant cells.
• Cells form from pre-existing
cells.
• Theodor Schwann
• 1839 – observed animal
cells and are different from
plant cells.
• Rudolf Virchow
• 1855 - cells arise only from
 cells and the
microscope
• Cells - made of subunits
• Particular-in their size
and microscopy.
• High magnification and
resolution – are needed
to observe.
Commonly
used
conversion
•Magnification is calculated
using the following equation:

Magnification =
Drawing size ÷ Actual
size
 •Magnification = image
size / actual size
•Actual size = image size /
magnification
•Image size =
magnification x actual
size
• Light microscope – dead
specimens, strains are used.
• Electron microscope - provide
greatest magnification.
• Over -100,000 X
Worked out examples on
magnification
•

•
worksheet
Advanced microscopy
• Two types of EM
• Scanning electron microscope
(SEM)
• Transmission electron
microscope (TEM).
• Cryogenic electron microscopy
by using freeze fracture (a
recent advancement).
• Light microscopy – involves
fluorescent strains and
immunofluorescence.
• Dyes – are used, useful to
develop target RNA.
• Area to develop - condenser.
Structures common to
all cells
• DNA - As genetic material
• Cytoplasm - site for all the
metabolic activities ( mainly
composed of water)
• Plasma membrane –
composed of lipids
• Cytosol - region of cell matrix –
that mainly composed of water.
• Place - for all day-to-day
activities.
• Plasma membrane - made up
off lipids
• It is a bilayer structure.
Structure of cell
membrane
• Phospholipids form bilayers in
water
• Main components of the plasma
membrane are phospholipids.
• Cell membranes are composed
of phospholipids that consist of a
hydrophilic (attracted to water)
head and a hydrophobic
• Phospholipids may vary in the
length and relative saturation of
the fatty acid tails
• Shorter fatty acid tails will
increase fluidity as they are less
viscous and more susceptible to
changes
• Cholesterol
embedded in the
membrane will reduce
the fluidity making the
membrane more
stable.
MEMBRANE PROTEINS
Integral proteins are
transmembrane (span the
bilayer) and permanently
attached to the membrane
Peripheral proteins associate
with one side of a membrane
and are temporarily attached
to the bilayer
 PROTEIN FUNCTIONS
• Junctions: They can connect cells together to
form tissues (tight junctions)
• Enzymes: Immobilising enzymes on
membranes localises specific reactions
• Transport: Allows passage of material across
the bilayer (channel proteins)
• Recognition: May function as markers for cell
identification (e.g. antigens)
• Adhesion: Act as attachment points for
cytoskeleton or extracellular matrix
• Transduction: Functions as receptors for
signalling pathways (glycoproteins)
 The prokaryotic cell
• Unicellular
• Include bacteria and
archaea
• Followed into different
branches to eukaryotes.
 Prokaryotic cell
• Unicellular.
• Commonly seen features are -
• The cell wall
• The plasma membrane
• Flagella
• Pili
• Ribosomes
• The nucleoid
Cell wall and plasma
membrane
• Cell wall - composed of
carbohydrate – protein complex –
peptidoglycan.
• Few cells - have additional layer
of polysaccharide – capsule.
• Plasma membrane - similar to
eukaryotic cell
• Helps in binary fission
 Cell wall and
plasma membrane
• Cell wall is made of complex
polysaccharide-protein
complex - Peptidoglycan
• Has a capsule – protection
• Plasma membrane - similar to
eukaryotes.
Classification of
bacteria
• In the presence of crystal violet
dye-
Gram-positive – is glow
Gram –negative - does not.
 Pili and flagella
• Pili - used to attach to the
surfaces
• May join the adjoining cells
(sexual reproduction)
• Flagella - move and anchorage
 Cytoplasm
• Occupies the complete inner cell.
• Site – cellular activities
• No specialized compartments exist
•Ribosomes
• Site for protein synthesis
• Present in large number.
• Has 2 subunits – a protein and
rRNA.
The nucleoid region
• Circular thread of DNA
• Not associated with
histones
• Hence- called as
naked loops
Has plasmid.
Binary fission
• Asexual
reproduction
• Two cells are
formed
Eukaryote cell
• Algae, protozoa, fungi, plants
and animals.
• Size - 5-100µm
• has organelles which carryout
specific functions.
• Cells have different functions
• Compartmentalization is seen.
Organelles seen are -
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Ribosomes
• Lysosomes (seen only in animal
cells).
• Golgi apparatus
• Mitochondria
• Nucleus
• Chloroplasts (only is plants)
• Centrosomes (not seen in plants)
• Vacuoles/ vesicles
 Cytoplasm
• Fills inside the plasma membrane.
• But not seen in nucleus
• Small fibers and rods - cytoskeleton
(endocytosis, cell division, intra-cellular
transport)
Cytoskeleton
• Fibres are made up of – proteins.
• Maintains cell shape, anchoring,
anchoring some organelles, aiding
cellular movements, means for
some organelles to move within
the cells.
• Cytoskeleton - has actin filaments,
intermediate filaments and
microtubules.
Actin filaments
(micro filaments) –
cell division,
contractions in
muscle cells.
Intermediate filaments
–
forms network in the
cytoplasm.

• prevent excessive
stretching
• Protects from external or
internal physical forces
• Reinforce cell shape
•Microtubules-
major
components of
the cytoskeleton

• Support the shape of

the cells.
• Microtubules –
make centrioles
• important for
cell division
• Present near the
nucleus.

•
•
Endoplasmic
reticulum
• Network of tubules – seen
everywhere in the cell.
• Transports material throughout
the internal region of cell.
• Two types- smooth and rough
SER -
• lipid metabolism and
membrane phospholipids
production
• calcium ion storage
• detoxification of harmful
metabolic byproducts
• synthesis of steroid hormones in
certain cell types.
RER-
• protein synthesis
• also include post-
translational modifications,
folding, and sorting
Ribosomes
• Found on ER and freely
floating in cytoplasm.
• Has an RNA and protein
• Larger and denser in
size.
• 80s type is seen
Lysosomes
• Intracellular digestive enzymes.
• Vesicles
• Have hydrolytic enzymes to catalyze
biomolecules.
• Involve in phagocytosis and endocytosis
• Inner environment - acidic
• Hydrolytic enzymes - 40 different types.
• Hydrolases enzymes
 Golgi apparatus
• Has cisternae.
• helps process and package
proteins
• and lipid molecules,
especially proteins
• Cis side- near ER
• Products – move to trans side.
• Vesicles are seen
• Commonly seen grandular
cells and glands like
pancreas.
•

Mitochondr
ia
• Double membrane
• Outer membrane -smooth
• Inner membrane –cristae- spaces of
inner membrane - site for ATP synthesis.
• Inside – matrix
• Cristae - ATP
• 70S ribosomes
• Can reproduce independently.
Electron micrograph
Nucleus
• DNA –resides
• Double membrane - nuclear
envelope
• Presence of nuclear pores
• Chromatin - cell DNA
• Nucleoli - makes ribosomes
• Few cells do not have
nucleus –RBC
Chloroplast
• Occur in algae and plant cells.
• Has 70S ribosomes
• Has circular DNA
• Site for photosynthesis.
• Converts light energy to
chemical energy.
• Inner structure has grana,
thylakoid and stroma.
• Stroma – like cytoplasm.
• Stroma - has enzymes and
chemicals for photosynthesis.
• Can reproduce independently.
Electron micrograph
Vacuoles
• Vacuoles –formed
from Golgi bodies.
• In plant cell -
occupies majority of
the cell, allows
uptake of water.
• Present in the center
of the plant.
• Has tonoplast.
 Comparison of
eukaryote and
prokaryote cells.
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
No histone proteins Presence of histone proteins
DNA – freely floating in DNA – enclosed in nucleus
cytoplasm
No mitochondria Presence of mitochondria
No compartmentalization Compartmentalization is
seen.
Less than 10µm Between 10 - 150µm
 Unicellular organisms

Processes of life
• Metabolism
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Response to stimuli
• Homeostasis
• Nutrition
• Excretion
• movement
Uniqueness of
unicellular?
• Cell membrane – homeostasis
• Cilia and flagella- movement
• Ribosomes- makes proteins, repair and
growth
• Vacuoles – store food, digestion provide
nutrition, excretion
• Mitochondria – also mentioned as area of
enzymes, allows energy production
 Different types of eukaryotic
cells
Plants cells Animal cells Fungal cells

Cell wall - present, made No cell wall. Cell wall – present, made
up of cellulose . Round or flexible in up of chitin.
Gives shape shape Shapes may vary
Presence of chloroplast - No chloroplasts No chloroplast
makes carbohydrates

Vacuole - present Vesicle – present Vacuole – present, small

and many
Storage food - starch Storage food – glycogen Storage food – glycogen
Do not have cilia and Have cilia and flagella. May have cilia and
flagella flagella
Has centrosomes Has centrioles (micro Has centrosomes
 Atypical
eukaryotic
cells
Fungi