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Breathing and Exchange of Gases: Tamphasana Girls' Higher Secondary School Manipur

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Breathing and Exchange of Gases: Tamphasana Girls' Higher Secondary School Manipur

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Unit V: Animal physiology (18 marks)

Chapter 17
BREATHING AND
EXCHANGE OF GASES

By
Dr. Laishram Surbala

TAMPHASANA GIRLS' HIGHER SECONDARY SCHO


MANIPUR
BREATHING:

It is the inflow (inspiration) and outflow (expiration) of air


between atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs.

RESPIRATION:

It is an oxidation process of food substances within the


cells to form CO2, water and consequent release of
energy
RESPIRATORY ORGANS IN ANIMALS

SL. ORGANISM GASEOUS EXCHANGE/ RESPIRATION


NO.
1 Protozoans, Direct respiration – Surrounding environment
Sponges, and plasma membrane by diffusion
Coelentrates
2 Free living flat General body surface by diffusion
worms
3 Round worms No exchange of gases (anaerobic
respiration)
4 Earthworm Cutaneous respiration
5 Cockroach The respiratory system includes- spiracles,
tracheae and tracheoles
6 Scorpion, Spiders Book lungs
7 Fishes Gills
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS
 It comprises of nostrils, nasal chamber, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.

1. Nostrils:
 Holes of nose are called
nostrils (external nares) which
leads to nasal chamber.

2. Nasal chamber:
Nasal septum divides nasal cavity into 2 nasal chambers.
The nasal chamber opens into the pharynx.
3. Pharynx

It is a passage to both air and food.

The pharynx leads to larynx.

4. Larynx (voice box):

Larynx is a cartilaginous box which helps in sound


production and hence called the sound box.

During swallowing glottis (a slit like aperture in larynx) is


closed by a thin elastic cartilaginous flap called epiglottis
to prevent the entry of food into the larynx.

The larynx leads to trachea.


(5) Trachea:
Trachea is a straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic
cavity.
It is supported by C-shaped ring cartilage.
When there is no air, trachea does not collapse due to
cartilaginous rings.
(6) Bronchi and Bronchioles:
The trachea branches into 2 primary bronchi, one to each
lung.
The primary bronchi are subdivided into secondary bronchi,
tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, and finally
alveoli.
Alveoli are the primary site where the exchange of O2 and
CO2 between blood and atmospheric air takes place.
Lungs

 The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and


alveoli comprise the lungs.
 There is a pair of lungs
 Lung has 2 membranes called pleurae or pleural
membranes.
 The space between the two is known as pleural cavity
and contains pleural fluid.
Respiration involves the following steps:
i.Breathing by which atmospheric air is drawn in and CO2
rich alveolar air is released out.
ii.Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar
membrane.
iii.Transport of gases by the blood.
iv.Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.

v.Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and

resultant release of CO2.


MECHANISM OF BREATHING:
It involves
(i) inspiration (ii) expiration
The main muscles of respiration in normal quiet
breathing are:
i. Diaphragm,
ii. Intercostals muscles of ribs
iii. Abdominal muscles.
Inspiration
During inspiration atmospheric
air is drawn in.
Inspiration occurs if the
pressure within the lungs is less
than the atmospheric pressure.
During inspiration, the
diaphragm becomes flat,
external intercostals muscles
contract and abdominal muscle
relaxes simultaneously.

 This moves the lateral thoracic walls outward and upward


increasing the thoracic cavity which increases pulmonary
volume and decreases the intra-pulmonary pressure to less
than the atmospheric pressure which forces the air from
outside to move into the lungs.
Expiration

 During expiration the alveolar air is


released out.

 During expiration, the diaphragm


becomes dome-shaped and
internal intercostals muscles
contract and abdominal muscle
contract simultaneously;

 Resulting in downward and inward movement of the


thoracic wall decreasing the thoracic cavity which
decreases pulmonary volume and increases the intra-
pulmonary pressure to slightly above the atmospheric
pressure which forces the air to move out of the lungs to
outside.
Pulmonary/respiratory volumes and capacities
Pulmonary volume: The quantities of air the lungs can
receive, hold or expel under different conditions are called
pulmonary volumes.
(1) Tidal volume (TV):
Amount of air inspired or expired with each normal breath
(approx 500 ml).
(2) Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV):
Extra amount of air that can be inspired forcibly after a
normal respiration (approx 3100 ml).
(3) Expiratory reserve volume (ERV):
Extra amount of air that can be expired forcibly after a normal
respiration (approx 1200 ml).
(4) Residual volume (RV):
Amount of air left in lungs after forceful expiration (approx
1200 ml).
Pulmonary capacities
It is the combination of two or more pulmonary volumes.

(1) Inspiratory capacity (IC):


Total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal
expiration.
TV + IRV = IC; (500 + 3100) ml = 3600 ml
(2) Expiratory capacity (EC):
Total volume of air a person can expire after a normal
inspiration.
TV + ERV = EC; (500 + 1200) ml = 1700 ml
(3) Functional residual capacity (FRC):
Volume of air that will remain in the lungs after a normal
expiration.
RV + ERV = FRC; (1200 + 1200) ml = 2400 ml
(4) Vital capacity (VC)
The maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after
a forced expiration.
TV + IRV + ERV = VC; (500 + 3100 + 1200) ml = 4800 ml
(4) Total lung capacity (TLC):
Total volume of air accommodated in the lungs at the end
of a forced inspiration
VC + RV = TLC; (4800 + 1200) ml = 6000 ml
EXCHANGE OF GASES
Exchange of gases occurs in lungs and body tissues by
diffusion.

Partial pressure
 Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases

is called partial pressure (pO2 for O2; PCO2 for CO2)


Exchange of Gases in Lungs:
In lungs, the exchange of gases (O2 and CO2) between
lung alveoli and pulmonary capillaries take place.
The pO2 is higher in alveoli (104 mm Hg) than the
deoxygenated blood in the capillaries of pulmonary artery
(40 mm Hg). Therefore, O2 moves (diffuses) from alveoli to
capillaries.
On the other hand, pCO2 is higher in deoxygenated blood
in the capillaries of pulmonary artery (45 mm Hg) than the
alveoli (40 mm Hg). Therefore, CO2 moves (diffuses) from
capillaries to alveoli.
Blood becomes oxygenated, and moves to heart and then
to tissues.
Exchange of Gases in tissues:
In tissues, the exchange of gases (O2 and CO2) between
tissue blood capillaries and tissue cells take place.
The pO2 is higher in oxygenated blood in the capillaries (95
mm Hg) than the body cells (40 mm Hg). Therefore, O2
moves (diffuses) from capillaries to body cells.
pCO2 is higher in the body cells 45 mm Hg) than the blood
in the capillaries (40 mm Hg). Therefore, CO2 moves
(diffuses) from body cells to capillaries.

The blood becomes deoxygenated, and moves to heart and


then to lungs.
TRANSPORT OF GASES IN BLOOD:
 Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2
Transport of O2
(1) As dissolve gas
 3% of O2 is carried by blood plasma
(2) As oxyhaemoglobin:
97% of O2 is carried by binding to haemoglobin (Hb).
 Haemoglobin consists of a protein called globin and a haeme
group.
Four iron atoms are present in haeme group.
Each iron has the capacity to bind to one O2.
One haemoglobin molecule can carry four molecules of O2
100 ml of oxygenated blood can carry around 5 ml of O2.
OXYGEN-HAEMOGLOBIN DISSOCIATION CURVE:
 The percentage of haemoglobin i.e. bound with O2 is
called percentage saturation of haemoglobin.
 The relationship between the pO2 and percentage
saturation of haemoglobin is graphically presented by
a curve called Oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation
curve.
 The curve is “sigmoid” in shape.
 The oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve is useful
in studying the effect of factors like pCO2, H+
concentration, etc., on binding of O2 with
haemoglobin.
 In the alveoli, high pO2, low
pCO2, lesser H+
concentration and lower
temperature, makes the
condition favourable for
formation of
oxyhaemoglobin.

 In the tissues, low pO2, high pCO2, high H+ concentration and


higher temperature makes the condition favourable for
dissociation of oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin.
 Shifting of curve to the right indicates dissociation of O 2
from haemoglobin
 Shifting of curve to the left indicates association of O 2 to
haemoglobin.
BOHR EFFECT

• Shifting of O2 - haemoglobin dissociation curve to the right


by increasing CO2 partial pressure.

• Increased CO2 concentration causing dissociation of O2-


haemoglobin
Transport of CO2
 7% of CO2 in dissolved state in plasma

 23% of CO2 as carbamino-haemoglobin

 70% of CO2 as bicarbonates.


As dissolved state in plasma

As carbamino-haemoglobin
CO2 reacts directly with haemoglobin to form carbamino-
haemoglobin.

As bicarbonates
At the tissue site where partial pressure of CO 2 is high, CO2
diffuses into blood (RBCs and plasma) and reacts with water to
form carbonic acid.
This reaction is very slow in blood plasma, but occurs very
rapidly inside RBC because of the presence of carbonic
anhydrase.
CHLORIDE SHIFT

• Most of the bicarbonates (HCO3 -) formed inside RBC


diffuse out in the blood plasma along a concentration
gradient

• To balance ionic concentration, Cl- diffuse from plasma


into the RBCs.

• This shifting of Chloride ions and bicarbonates between


plasma and RBC is called Chloride shift.
Release of CO2 in alveoli
At the alveolar site where pCO2 is low, the reaction
proceeds in the opposite direction leading to the
formation of CO2 and H2O. Thus, CO2 trapped as
bicarbonate at the tissue level and transported to the
alveoli is released out as CO2.

Haldane effect
Binding of O2 with haemoglobin displaces CO2 from
blood
Bohr effect Haldane effect
• Increased CO2 concentration • Binding of O2 with haemoglobin
causing dissociation of O2- displaces CO2 from blood
haemoglobin • Helps in release of CO2from
• Helps in release of O2 from arterial blood to the alveoli of lungs
blood to the tissue cells
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION:
 Respiration is controlled by specialised centre present in
the brain called respiratory rhythm centre
 The respiratory centre is composed of neurons present
in medulla oblongata (dorsal respiratory centre) and
pons varolli (ventral respiratory centre)
 The functions of the respiratory rhythm centres are
again moderated by another centre near pons called
pneumotaxic centre
 Neural signal from this pneumotaxic centre can reduce
the duration of inspiration and thereby alter the
respiratory rate
Chemosensitive area

• Situated adjacent to the rhythm centre

• Highly sensitive to CO2 and hydrogen ions.

• Increase in CO2 and hydrogen ions can activate this centre

• Activation sends signal to the respiratory centre

• Necessary adjustments in the respiratory process is made


by which these substances can be eliminated (expiration)
• Chemoreceptors associated with aortic arch and carotid
artery also can recognise changes in CO2 and H+
concentration and send necessary signals to the rhythm
centre for remedial actions

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