In the name of Allah the Most Gracious the Most

Merciful
 FLUID MECHANICS – I
(CE- 251)

Dr. Ammara Mubeen

[email protected]
About Fluid Mechanics-1 Course
Course Title Fluid Mechanics I

Course Code CE – 251

Credit Hours 2+1

Theory 2

Practical 1

• Course Goals: Intends to provide understanding of the fluid statics, kinematics

and dynamics.

• Course Description:
The course provide students with basic information on statics, kinematics, and
dynamics of fluids. These include the study of Properties of fluids; Fluid statics;
Translation and rotation of fluid masses; Dimensional analysis and similitude;
Fundamentals of fluid flow; Fluid resistance; Compressible flow; Ideal fluid flow;
Fluid measurements.
 Fluid Mechanics-1 (CE-251)
 Recommended Book:
 1. J. B. Franzini and Finnemore, Fluid Mechanics
with Engineering Application, McGraw-Hill New
York (Latest Edition)
 Additional resources.
 1. F. M. White, Fluid mechanics, Mcgraw-Hill (0-07-
128646-2)
 2. Monson Young, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,
(Latest Edition)
 3. Douglus, Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill Inc.
 4. Jack P. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-
Hill Inc.
 5. Merle Potter, Mechanics of Fluid, CL- Engineering
(2011)
 Course Learning Outcomes
Taxonomy
S.No CLO Domain PLO
Level

1 Explain the basic principles of fluid Cognitive 2 1

statics.
Cognitive 3 2
2 Apply the principles of conservation
of mass, momentum and energy for
solving pipe flow problems

Psychomotor 3 1
Demonstrate the basic principles of
3 both fluid statics & dynamics by
carrying out experiments
 Course Topics( Fluid Mechanics-1)
0. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (this file)
1. Fluid Properties
2. Fluid Statics
3. Fluid Dynamics (kinematics and hydrodynamics)
4. Fluid Flow Measurements
5. Dynamics of Viscous Fluid Flow in Closed Pipe
6. Dynamics of Fluid Flow in Open Channel Flow
7. Dimensional Analysis and Hydraulic Similitude
 FLUID MECHANICS
• Course Outline:
• 0. Introduction: Importance of course in engineering, course syllabus,
grading policy, learning outcome, advices
• 1. Fluid Properties: Solids and fluids (liquids and gases). Units and
dimensions. Physical properties of fluids; density, specific weight, specific
volume, specific gravity, surface tension, compressibility. Viscosity,
measurement of viscosity, Newton's equation of viscosity. Hydrostatics,
kinematics, hydrodynamics, hydraulics.
• 2. Fluid Statics: Pressure intensity and pressure head, pressure and
specific weight relationship, absolute and gauge pressure, measurement
of pressure, Piezo-meter, manometer. Differential manometer and Borden
gauge. Forces on Immersed Bodies: Forces on submerged planes & curved
surfaces and their applications, Drag and Lift forces, buoyancy and
floatation. Equilibrium of floating and submerged bodies.

7
7
 FLUID MECHANICS-1 CE-251
• 3. Fluid Kinematics: Steady and unsteady flow, laminar and
turbulent flow, uniform and non-uniform flow. Path-line,
streamlines and stream tubes. Velocity and discharge. Control
volume, Equation of continuity for compressible and incompressible
fluids.
• 4. Fluid Dynamics:
• Different forms of energy in a flowing liquid, head, Bernoulli's
equation and its application, Energy line and Hydraulic Gradient
Line,
• Momentum Equation and its Application (Forces on pressure
conduits, reducers and bends, stationary and moving blades,
torques in rotating machines).

8
 FLUID MECHANICS-1 CE-251
• 5. Flow Measurement: Orifices and mouthpieces, sharp-crested
weirs and notches, pitot tube and pitot static tube, venturimeter

• 6. Dimensional Analysis and Similitude: concept of dimensional

analysis, method of dimensional analysis, similitude, concept of
dimensional similarity, dimensional numbers, model analysis

9
 List of Practical
No. List of Practical
1 Determining the density of water
2 Studying the distribution of pressure within static liquids to verify Pascal's Law.
3 Calibrating a Bourdon Type Gauge
Determining the hydrostatic thrust and location of center of pressure of a
4
submerged body
5 Investigating stability of ship in relation to the position of its metacenter
6 Investigating and verifying the Bernoulli's Theorem in steady flow
7 Investigating the flow characteristics of various types of flow meters
8 Investigating the reaction forces produced by change in momentum of fluid flow.
Determining the Coefficients of velocity, contraction and discharge of a small
9
orifice
10 Investigating velocities of different materials in fluids
Flow visualization for illustrating streamlines around solid bodies using flow
11
Visualization Table
 FLUID MECHANICS – I (CE- 251)

DISTRIBUTION OF MARKS (Theory)

Distribution Contribution in Grading

Theory (67%)

Assignments/Quizzes 20% 13

Mid Semester Exam 30% 20

1 x Final Exam 50% 34

 FLUID MECHANICS – I (CE- 251)
DISTRIBUTION OF MARKS (Practicals)

Practical's Assessment (1 credit hour) Marks Distribution Absolute (33%)

Lab Work (Report, Quizzes, Attendance
in Lab) 70% 23.1
Rubrics 30% 9.9
Total: 33

Lab Attendance: Be regular in attending Labs. Consult lab staff for your attendance record.
Attendance marks will be based on the record provided by the lab staff.
 Points for
Points for Consideration
Consideration

• Office hours: A golden time to build up your skills and excel in the
course and strengthen your engineering skills in the subject.
• Assignments: assignments are bonus points it will only benefit you if
you spend the necessary time to understand the basics and solve the
problems yourself. Keep up with the assignments, as the topics in this
course build upon each other.
• Quizzes: Focused assessment by chapter and after 4-practicals to
monitor your progress and discover your weakness in the chapter and
Practicals. Efficiently use the office hours.
• Be professional and watch the deadlines: In your professional life
dedication and keeping deadlines are your keys to success. Start
practicing it right from this institution.

13
 Important Note:
• Examination Policy
• Use the additional references to be better prepared. For the
examinations.
• Examinations are closed book

• Attendance Policy
• The NUST Attendance Policy applies to this course
• The classroom doors will be closed 5 minutes after the class start time.

• Assignment Delay Policy

• 1 day of delay will reduce your assignment grade by 1.
• 2 days delay mean -2 and so on… if assignment is delayed by one week, it will not
be graded.

14
 FLUID MECHANICS – I (CE- 251)

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and

its applications
FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid: Fluids are substance which area capable of flowing and
conforming the shapes of container.
Fluids can be in gas or liquid states.

Mechanics: Mechanics is the branch of science that deals with

the state of rest or motion of body under the action of forces.

Fluid Mechanics: Branch of mechanic that deals with the

response or behavior of fluid either at rest or in motion.
Branches of Fluid Mechanics
 Fluid Statics: It is the branch of fluid mechanics
which deals with the response/behavior of fluid
when they are at rest.
 Fluid kinematics: It deals with the response of
fluid when they are in motion without considering
the energies and forces in them.
 Fluid dynamics: It deals with the behavior of
fluids when they are in motion considering
energies and forces in them.
 Hydraulics: It is the most important and
practical/experimental branch of fluid
mechanics which deals with the behavior of water
and other fluid either at rest or in motion.
CANALs

Pumps and Turbines

Water Retaining Structures

Significance of Fluid Mechanics
 Fluid is the most abundant available
substance e.g., air, gases, ocean, river and
canal etc.

 It provides basis for other subjects e.g.,

 Public health/environmental engineering
 Hydraulic Engineering
 Irrigation Engineering
 Coastal Engineering
 Water Resources
 etc etc
Forms of Fluid Mechanics
Fluid
Mechanics Fluid
Dynamics
Fluid Statics Computational
Fluid Dynamics

Fluid Experimental
Kinematics Fluid Dynamics

Analytical
Fluid Dynamics Fluid Dynamics
Applications of EFD
Application in research &
development

Tropic Wind Tunnel has the ability to

create
temperatures ranging from 0 to 165
degrees
Fahrenheit and simulate rain

Example of industrial application

NASA's cryogenic wind tunnel simulates flight

conditions for scale models--a critical tool in
designing airplanes.
Application in teaching

Fluid dynamics laboratory

 Modeling (examples)
Developing flame surface (Bell et al.,
2001)
Free surface animation for ship
in regular waves

Evolution of a 2D mixing layer laden with particles of Stokes

Number 0.3 with respect to the vortex time scale (C.Narayanan)
State of Matter
• 1. gas
• 2. Liquid fluid
• 3. Solid

25
Comparison Between Liquids and Gases
 Liquids have definite  Gases do not have any
volume at any particular definite volume
temperature  Gases do not have free level
 Liquids have free level surface
surface  Molecules of gases are far
apart
 Molecules of liquid are
close to each other  Gases have less molecular
 Liquids have relatively attraction
more molecular attraction  Gases are highly
 Liquids are slightly compressible
compressible

 Gases have higher rate of

 Rate of diffusion of liquid
diffusion
is less
Comparison Between Liquids and Solids
Liquid conform the shape of any  Do not conform the shape of
container container
Liquid can flow  Solids cannot flow
 Molecules of solids are
Molecules of liquid are distinctly
very close to each other
apart
 Solids have more molecular
Liquid have relatively less attraction
molecular attraction  Solids are highly
incompressible
Liquid are slightly compressible
 Solids can sustain shear
Liquids cannot sustain shear
forces
 Conversions
Length
 Time
1m=1000mm=100cm  1day=24hours
1ft=12inch  1 hour=60min
1m=3.281ft  1 min=60s
1Mile=5280ft=_______km
 Volume
 Mass 1kg=0.06852  1m3=1000liters=_______cm3
slug
 1kg=1000g
 1m3=35.32ft3
 1kg of mass is of
weight=2.204lb
 1kg mass is of weight=9.81N
 9.81N=2.204lb
 1N=
Exercise: 2.204/9.8
Convert lb=0.2246lb
the units of following.

60 miles/hour=_________ ft/s=___________m/s=____________km/hr

(1 mile=1.6093 km)

10m3/s=________liter/min=__________ft 3/s=____________ in3/s

15N/m2=___________=___________N/cm2=______________lb/ft2
Derived Units
 Properties of Fluid
Density Specific Weight Specific Volume Specific Gravity Compressibility Bulk Modulus Vapor Pressure Viscosity Surface Tension

Fluid Mechanics Forms

Fluid Statics Fluid Kinematics Fluid Dynamics

Laws
Laws of Hydrostatics Euler's ,Bernoulli and Energy Conservation of mass Conservation of Momentum

Hydraulic Structures/Subjects
Water Supply Water Sewerage Irrigation and Water Cycle and Surface Groundwater Metrology and
Hydropower Plants
Systems Designs Agriculture Hydrology Resources Climate Change
 Physical Properties of Fluids
 Density
 Specific Volume
 Specific Weight
 Specific Gravity
 Compressibility
 Viscosity
 Surface Tension
 Pressure
 Buoyancy
 Density

• Density quantifies the

compactness of atoms.
• May vary with
temperature or pressure
• A homogenous material
has the same density
throughout

STP
Specific Volume

The reciprocal of the

density of a
substance is called its
specific volume.
v = V/m = ρ-1
 Specific Weight

STP
Relationship between ρ and γ
Effect of temperature and pressure
on Specific Weight
Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
 Example
A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg.
The reservoir has a volume of 0.917 m3.
Compute the density, specific weight, and
specific gravity of the oil.
Solution:
mass m 825
 oil    900kg / m 3
volume V 0.917
weight mg
oil   g 900 x9.81 8829 N / m 3
volume V
 oil 900
SGoil   0.9
 w @ STP 998
 Exercises
• If the specific weight of a liquid is 52 lb/ft3, what is its density?
• If the specific weight of a liquid is 8.1 kN/m3, what is its
density?
• If the specific volume of a gas is 375 ft3/slug, what is its
specific weight lb/ft3?
• If the specific volume of a gas is 0.70 m3/kg, what is its
specific weight N/m3?
• A certain gas weighs 16.0 N/m3 at a certain temperature and
pressure. What are the values of its density, specific volume
and specific gravity relative to air weighing12.0 N/m3?
• The specific weight of glycerin is 78.6 lb/ft3. Compute its
density and specific gravity. What is its specific weight in
kN/m3?
• If a certain gasoline weighs 43 lb/ft3, what are the values of
its density, specific volume and specific gravity relative to
water at 60oF? Use appendix A.
Compressibility
• Compressible fluids
• Incompressible fluids

• In fluid mechanics we deal with both compressible and

incompressible fluids of either variable or constant density.
• Although there is no such thing in reality as incompressible fluid, we
use this terms where the change in density with pressure is so small
as to be negligible. This is usually the case with liquids.
• Ordinarily, we consider the liquids as incompressible.
• We may consider the gases to be incompressible when the pressure
variation is small compared with absolute pressure.
Compressibility
Compressibility
Compressibility (Volumetric strain)
 Compressibility
• Bulk Modulus or Volume Modulus of Elasticity (Ev):
• It is defined as ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain

 Ev= volumetric stress/volumetric strain

 Ev=change in pressure/compressibility

dp dp
Ev  Ev 
 dv   d 
   
 v1   1 

51
Ideal Fluid & Real Fluid
• Ideal Fluid: • Real Fluid:
An Ideal Fluid is usually defined as a fluid In real fluid, either liquid or gas,
in which there is no friction, it is in tangential or shearing forces
viscid (its viscosity is zero). always develop whenever there is
Thus the internal forces at any section motion relative to a body, thus
within it are always normal to the creating fluid friction, because
section, even during motion. So these these forces oppose the motion
forces are purely pressure forces. of one particle past another.
Although such a fluid does not exist in These frictional forces give rise to
reality, many fluids approximate fluid property called viscosity.
frictionless flow at sufficient
distances from the solid boundaries.
So we can often conveniently analyze
their behaviors by assuming an ideal
fluid.
The Continuum Concept of A Fluid
• In engineering problems
• Materials, such as solids, liquids and
dealing with fluids, one generally
gases, are composed of molecules
deals with dimensions that are
separated by "empty" space. On a
very large compared to
macroscopic scale, materials have
molecular sizes.
cracks and discontinuities.
• The space between the
• However, certain physical
molecules is not considered and
phenomena can be modeled
the fluid properties (pressure,
assuming the materials exist as a
velocity, etc.) are considered to
continuum, meaning the matter in
vary continuously in space.
the body is continuously distributed
• The method of considering fluid and fills the entire region of space it
as a continuous mass is called as occupies.
continuum principle.
• A continuum is a body that can be
• Except in dealing with rarified continually sub-divided into
gases (a gas whose pressure is infinitesimal elements with
much less than atmospheric properties being those of the bulk
pressure), all normal fluid material.
mechanics analysis deals with
fluid as a continuum.
Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear or
angular deformation.

It is the property of a fluid by mixture of which it offers

resistance to deformation under the influence of shear forces. It
depends upon the cohesion and molecular momentum exchange
between fluid layers.
It can also be defined as internal resist offered by fluid to flow.
It is denoted by μ.

It is also termed as coefficient of viscosity or absolute viscosity or

dynamic viscosity or molecular viscosity.
Factor affecting viscosity
• 1. Cohesion
• 2. Molecular momentum
• 1. Cohesion: It is the attraction between molecules of fluid. More
the molecular attraction (cohesion) more is the viscosity (resistance
to flow) of fluid.
• It is dominant in liquids.
• 2. Molecular momentum: Molecules in any fluid change their
position with time and is known as molecular activity. It is dominant
in gases
Kinematic Viscosity
 It is ratio of absolute viscosity and density of fluid.
 It is denoted by (nu)




Effect of temperature on viscosity
For Liquids:
In case of liquids, cohesion (molecular
attraction is dominant). Therefore, if the
temperature of liquid is increased, its
cohesion and hence viscosity will
decrease.
1

T
For Gases:
In gases momentum exchange is
dominant. Therefore, if the temperature
of gases is increases, its momentum
exchange will increase and hence viscosity
will increase.

 T
Newton’s Equation of Viscosity
• Consider a fluid element sheared in one plane by a single shear stress ( )
as in Figure. The shear strain angle (  ) will continuously grow with time
as long as the stress is maintained, the upper surface moving at speed
larger than the lower.

 Eq. 1
t

 / u

Figure: shear stress causes continuous shear deformation in a fluid: (a). a fluid element straining at
a rate of (b). Newtonian shear stress distribution in a shear layer near a wall.

59
 Newton’s Equation of Viscosity
• From geometry of Figure we see that
ut
tan   Eq. 2
y
• In the limit of infinitesimal changes, this becomes a relating between
shear strain rate and velocity gradient
 u if tan  

t y Eq. 2
• Substituting Eq. 2 into Eq. 1
u
 Eq. 3
y
• Introducing coefficient of proportionality (µ)
u
 
y Eq. 4
• Where µ is called constant of coefficient of viscosity/ absolute
viscosity/dynamics viscosity
60
Newton’s Equation of Viscosity
du
 
dy

• The above equation is called as Newton’s equation of viscosity.

• The equation shows that the shearing stress is directly proportional
to the velocity gradient and it is known as Netwon’s law of velocity.

• In the above equation

• du/dy= velocity gradient or rate of change of deformation
• μ = absolute viscosity
• τ=shear stress

61
Dimensional Analysis of Viscosity
• Viscosity  Kinematic Viscosity
F y FL M
  2
A U L (L / T )  LT L2
  
FT  M T
 2 L3
L
• This expression is used to write
fundamental unit of viscosity
MLT  2T 2
  F  MLT
L2
M

LT

62
Unit of Viscosity
• Viscosity  M / LT
SI BG CGS

N-s/m2 Lb-s/ft2 Dyne-s/cm2

(Poise, P)

Kg/(m-s) Slug/(ft-s) g/(cm-s)

Widely used unit is Poise =0.1N.s/m2

 Kinematic Viscosity   L2 / T
SI BG CGS

m2/s ft2/s cm2/s

(stoke)

Widely used unit is Stoke=10-4m2/s

63
Shear Stress ~ Velocity gradient curve

• Ideal Fluid: The fluid which does not offer resistance to flow
 0   0
• Newtownian Fluid: Fluid which obey Newtown’s law of viscosity
du

dy
 ~ du / dy
slope of curve ( )is constant
For example water, air, alcohol, glycerol etc.
• Non-Newtonian fluid: Fluid which does not obey Newtown’s Law of
viscosity du

dy
 ~ du / dy
slope of curve ( )changing continuously

For example Flubber (Slime) , Ketchup, soap solutions, jam, emulsions 71

etc.
Shear Stress ~ Velocity gradient curve
• Ideal Solid: solid which can never be deformed under the action of
force
du
0
dy
• Real solid: solid which can be deformed under action of forces

• Ideal Plastic: These are substances which offer resistance to shear

forces without deformation upon a certain extent but if the load is
further increased then they deform

• Real Plastic: These are substances in which there is deformation with

the application of force and it increases with increase in applied load.

72
 Exercises
• Exercise 2.11.2: To what temperature must the fuel oil with the
higher specific gravity in fig. A.2 be heated in order that its
kinematic viscosity may be reduced to three times that of water
at 40°F?
• Exercise 2.11.3: Compare the ratio of the absolute viscosities of
air and water at 70°F with the ratio of their kinematic viscosities
at the same temperature and 14.7 psia.
• Exercise 2.11.6: A liquid has an absolute viscosity of 3.2 x 10-4 lb
sec/ft2. It weighs 56 lb/ft3. What are its absolute and kinematic
viscosities in SI units?
 Exercises
• Sample Problem 2.10: Water at 10°C stands in
a clean glass tube of 2 mm diameter at height
of 35 mm. What is the true static height?

• Exercise 2.12.1: Tap water at 68°F stands in a

glass tube of 0.32 inch diameter at a height of
4.50 inch. What is the true static height?

• Exercise 2.12.2: Distilled water at 20°C stands

in a glass tube of 6.0 mm diameter at a height
of 180 mm. What is the true static height?
 Exercises
• Exercise 2.12.3: Use Eq. (2.12) to compute the
capillary depression of mercury at 68°F ( θ =
140°) to be expected in a 0.05 inch diameter
tube.

• Exercise 2.12.4: Compute the capillary rise in

mm of pure water at 10°C expected in an 0.8
mm diameter tube.
NUST Institute of Civil Engineering/Ammara
Mubeen
NUST Institute of Civil Engineering/Ammara
Mubeen
 Sample Problem 2.3
• At a depth of 8 km in the ocean the pressure is 81.8
MPa. Assume that the specific weight of seawater at
surface is 10.05 kN/m3 and that the average volume
modulus is 2.34 x 109 N/m2 for that pressure range.
a. What will be the change in specific volume between
that at the surface and at that depth?
b. What will be the specific volume at that depth?
c. What will be the specific weight at that depth?
 Exercises
2.5.2) At normal atmospheric condition, approximately what pressure in psi
must be applied to water to reduce its volume by 2%?
2.5.3) Water in hydraulic press is subjected to pressure of 4500 psia at 68
degree F. If initial pressure is 15 psia, approximately what will be the
percentage decrease in the specific volume?
2.5.4) At normal atmospheric conditions, approximately what pressure in
MPa must be applied to water to reduce its volume by 3%?
2.5.5) A rigid cylinder, inside diameter 15 mm, contains a column of water
500 mm long. What will the column length be if a force of 2 kN is applied
to its end by frictionless plunger? Assume no leakage
 Sample Problem 2.4
• A vessel contains 85 l of water at 10 degree C and
atmospheric pressure. If the water is heated to 70
degree C, what will be the percentage change in its
volume.?
• What weight of water must be removed to maintain
the volume at its original value.
 Exercises
• 2.6.1
• Use Fig. 2.1 to find the approximate specific weight of water in
lb/ft3 under the following conditions: (a) at a temperature of 60
degree C under 101.3 kPa abs pressure, (b) at60 degree C under
a pressure of 13.79 MPa abs.
• 2.6.3
• A vessel contains 5 ft3 of water at 40 degree F and atmospheric
pressure. If the water is heated to 80 degree F, what will be the
percentage change in its volume.? What weight of water must be
removed to maintain the volume at its original value?
NUST Institute of Civil Engineering/Ammara
Mubeen
NUST Institute of Civil Engineering/Ammara
Mubeen