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Chapter 8
Procedures of Data
Collection, Data
Processing and Analysis
 Contents
 Collection of data – primary,
secondary data
 Methods of collecting data
 Essentials of a good questionnaire
 Selection of appropriate method for
data collection
 Data processing - Editing, coding,
classifying and tabulating of data
 Rules for tabulation
 Diagrammatic and graphic
presentation
 2
 Types of Data

Secondary Data
Primary Data (Data already
(Data collected for collected & passed
the first time) through statistical
process)

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 Data collection begins only after a
research problem has been defined
and research design finalized.
 Primary data are collected for the first
time, hence original in character.
 Secondary data are those which have
already been collected by someone
else and have already been passed
through statistical process.

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 Methods of Collecting Primary Data

Surveys Observation Experiments

Mailed
PersonalTelephone Questionnair On-line In house self FGD
Interview e method administered

Direct Indirect Schedules sent

personal oral through
interview interview Enumerators 5
 Methods of Collecting Primary
Data
Observation

Mechanica
Non-
Participant l
participant
observation observatio
observation
n
 Participant observation: The observer
takes part in the situation he or she
observers. Mostly takes part in
community settings.
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 Non-participant observation: The
observer does not participate in the
situation and collects data by
observing behaviour without
interacting with participants.

 Mechanical observation: People or

situations are to be observed in a
closed setting through mechanical
devices.
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 Interview

Structure Semi-
Unstructure
d structured
d interview
interview interview
 Structured interview: Usually used in
quantitative research. Standard set of
questions are asked to all respondents.
Interviewer asks the questions exactly as
appeared. Choice of answers to the questions
is often pre-determined (close-ended).

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 Unstructured interview: Neither the
questions not the answers are pre-
determined. Questions can be changed
or adopted to meet respondent’s
understanding. Does not offer a
restricted, pre-set range of answers.

 Semi-structured interview: Includes

partly open-ended and closed-ended
questions. Involves both give and
receive information.

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 Sources of Secondary Data

Internal Source External Source

In house Ministries, Agencies of govt.

publications Reports of international
Bodies & foreign govt.
Letters, Records www., magazines
Journals, newspapers
Associations
Databases Research Groups &Companies
Universities/Colleges
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 Rating Scale
 Each item contributes equally to the
measure of that construct, implying
all items are of equal importance.
 Can have several types of response
categories.

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 Type of Points on Continuum
Scale
1 2 3 4 5
Agreement Strongly Agree Neither Disagree Strongly
Agree Agree or Disagree
Disagree
Frequency Always Often About Half Seldom Never
the Time
Satisfaction Very Satisfied Neither Dissatisfied Very
Satisfied Satisfied nor Dissatisfied
Dissatisfied
Effectiveness Very Effective Neither Ineffective Very
Effective Effective nor Ineffective
Ineffective
Quality Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor
Expectancy Much Better than As Expected Worse than Much Worse
Better than Expected Expected then
Expected Expected
Extent To a Very To a Great Somewhat To a Small To a Very
Great Extent Extent Small Extent
Extent 12
 Secondary Primary
Data Data

1.Less expensive 1.Application

and usable
2.Easily
Advantage accessible 2.Accurate and
reliable
s 3.Immediately 3.Up-to-date
available
1.May not be 1.Expensive
applicable 2.Not as readily
2.Potentially accessible
Disadvantage unreliable
3.Not available
s 3.Frequently immediately
outdated 13
 Essentials of a Good
Questionnaire
 Questionnaire should be short and simple.
 Size of the questionnaire should be kept
to the minimum.
 Questions should proceed in logical
sequence.
 Personal questions should be left to the
end.
 Technical terms should be avoided.
 Questions may be Dichotomous (yes/no),
multiple choice or open-ended.
 Questions difficult in interpretation should
be avoided. 14
 Control questions should get place in
the questionnaire to facilitate cross
check for testing the reliability of
information.
 Questions affecting sentiments should
be avoided.
 Adequate space should be provided in
Questionnaire.
 Brief directions should be given at
necessary places.
 Ensure better quality of paper, color for
drawing attention (necessary for mailed
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 Guidelines in Preparing
Questionnaire
 Be clear about the various aspects of the
problem to be dealt with.
 Keep in mind the nature of information
sought, sample respondents and kind of
analysis intended.
 Rough draft of the Questionnaire should
be prepared first by giving due thought
to the appropriate sequence of putting
questions.
 Should re-examine and revise the rough
draft of Questionnaire. 16
 Technical defects must be minutely
scrutinized and removed.
 Pilot study should be undertaken for
pre-testing the Questionnaire.
 Questionnaire should be edited as per
the feedback of pilot survey.
 Provide straight forward directions to
clearly understand the questions by
the respondents.
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 Selection of Appropriate
Method for Data Collection

Considerations:
 Nature, scope and objectives of study
 Level of precision required
 Availability of funds and involvement
of time.
 Level of efforts and expertise.
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 Data Processing and
Analysis
 Processing implies editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of
collected data to help further analysis.
 Analysis refers to computation of
certain measures along with searching
for patterns of relationship that exist
among data-groups.
 Analysis involves organizing data for
answering the research questions.
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 1. Editing

4. Data 2.
Tabulation Processing Coding

3. Classification

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 Editing
Checking the data for errors
, omissions & ambiguities
Should be done
Field Editing after the field
interview.
Should be done
Central after the
Editing closing of
interview.
(Be familiar with instructions and understand
clearly)
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 Coding

 Refers to the process of assigning

numerals or other symbols to answers.
 Helps in putting responses into a
limited number of categories or
classes.
 Decisions of coding should be taken at
the designing stage of the
Questionnaire.
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 Classification

Arrangement of data
in groups as per
common
characteristics

GeographicalChronologicalQualitative Quantitative
(area-wise) ( basis of time)
(Attributes)( magnitude)
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 Tabulation of Data
 A table is a systematic arrangement of
statistical data in columns and rows.

Parts of a Table:
 Table Number: Each table should be
numbered.
 Table number may be given either in
the centre at the top above the title or
inside of the title at the top or in the
bottom of the table on the left-hand
side. 24
 Title of the Table: Should be clear, brief
and self-explanatory.
 Title has to answer the questions what,
where and when in that sequence.
 Caption: Is the column headings and
explains what the column represents.
 Under column heading there may be
sub-heads.
 Stub: The designations of rows or row
headings. Placed at the extreme left in
the table.
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 Body: Contains numerical information.
Data presented in the body are
classifications of the captions and stubs.
 Head note: A brief statement applying to
all parts of the material in the table,
placed at the above extreme right
enclosed in brackets.
 Footnotes: Anything in a table to simplify
in understanding the title, captions and
stubs.
 Source: Reference to the source should be
completed in itself – name, date of
publication, page number etc.
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 Parts of a Table
Table No.
Title
(Head note)
Caption
Stub
Heading
Column Heading

Body
Stub
Entries

Footnote
Source 27
 Types of Table

SimpleComplexGeneral Special Purpos

Purpose
(derivative)
(reference)
One-wayTwo -way Higher order

Treble Manifold

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Simple table (one-way table): Only one
characteristics is shown.
Table No. 2.1
Distribution of Teachers in Institute of
Higher Learning according to age-group
Age (in years) No. of Employees
Below 25 07 (25.93)
25 – 35 09 (33.33)
35 – 45 11 (40.74
Total 27 (100.0)
Footnote: Figures in the parentheses indicate percentage to total.

Source: Annual Report, Institute of Higher Learning, 2010.

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 Two-way table: Shows two
characteristics.
 Formed when either Stub or the Caption
is divided into two coordinate parts.
Table No. 2.1.3
Distribution of Teachers in Institute of
Higher LearningTeachers
according to Age-
Age (in years) groups
Males andFemales
Sex Total

Below 25 06 05 11 (25.0)
25 – 35 07 09 16 (36.0)
35 – 45 13 04 17 (39.0)
Total 26 (59.0) 18 (41.0) 44 (100.0)
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  Higher order table: Three or more
characteristics are represented in the
table.
 Treble tabulation: Three characteristics
Table No. 3.2.1
are shown.
Distribution of Teachers in IHL according to Age-groups, Sex and
Positions
Age in
Positions
Years
Professor Associate Assistant Total
Professor Professor

M F Total M F Total M F Total M F Total

Below 25 03 02 05 07 06 13 01 04 05 11 12 23 (..)
25 - 35 04 05 09 11 07 18 03 05 08 18 17 35 (..)

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Total 07 07 14 18 13 31 04 09 13 29 29 58
 Manifold tabulation: Four or more
characteristics are simultaneously shown.
Table No. 4.6.1
Distribution of Teachers in IHL as per Religion, Age,
Position and Sex
Age ( In Years)

Position
Religion

Professor Associate Assistant Total

Professor Professor

M F Total M F Total M F Total M F Total

Buddhism

Total
Hinduism

Total
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 General tables: Reference or Repository
tables provide information for general use
or reference.
 Usually contain detailed information and
are not constructed for specific
discussion.
 Be placed in the appendix of the reports
for easy reference.
 Special tables: Known as Summary tables,
provide information for particular
discussion.
 Be placed in the body of the text.
 Are derived from general tables.
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 Diagrammatic and Graphic
Presentation
General Rules:

 Every diagram must be given a suitable

title.
 A proper proportion between the height and
width of the diagram should be maintained
to avoid ugly look to the diagram.
 Scale showing the values should be in even
numbers or in multiples of 5 or 10. Odd
values like 1,3,7 should be avoided.
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 Scale should specify the size of the
unit and what it represents- million of
tones, units in thousands, etc.
 To clarify certain points about diagram,
footnote be placed at the bottom of
the diagram.
 An index explaining different types of
lines or shades, colors should be given
for getting the meaning easily.

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 Diagrams should be absolutely neat
and clean.
 Too much material should not be
loaded in a single diagram. This is to
avoid confusion.
 Diagrams should be as simple as
possible to understand clearly and
easily.
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Questions and Discussion

Students must see the

research reports in which
analysis is carried out by the
researchers

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