Research

Methods-I
Ms. Aniqa Khaliq
 Basic Definitions
 Research: The systematic investigation into and study
of materials and sources in order to establish facts and
reach new conclusions.
 Research methods are specific procedures for
collecting and analyzing data. It includes quantitative,
qualitative and mixed method researches.
 Scientific methods: A method of procedure that has
characterized natural science since the 17th century,
consisting in systematic observation, measurement,
and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and
modification of hypotheses.
Goals of the Scientific Method

 Description
 Prediction
 Explanation
 Application
These goals further leads to:
 Understanding the Natural World:
 The primary goal is to explain natural phenomena. Scientists seek to answer questions about
how the universe works.
 Developing Knowledge:
 The scientific method aims to build a reliable and testable body of knowledge. This knowledge
is cumulative, meaning it builds on previous findings.
 Generating Testable Predictions:
 One crucial aspect is formulating hypotheses that can be tested through experimentation.
This leads to predictions that can be verified or falsified.
 Problem-Solving:
 The scientific method provides a systematic approach to solving problems
 Innovation:
 By following the scientific method, researchers can develop new technologies, medicines, and
solutions to pressing issues.
 Salient Features of the
Scientific Method
 Observation
 Questioning
 Hypothesis Formation
 Experimentation
 Data Collection
 Analysis
 Replication
 Peer Review
 Theory Development
 Open to Revision
Assumptions of the Scientific Method
 Empiricism:
 The scientific method is based on observation and experimentation. Knowledge
must be derived from empirical evidence, which can be measured and tested.
 Determinism:
 The assumption here is that natural phenomena have causes and that given the
same conditions, the same outcomes can be expected. This allows for
predictability in scientific inquiry.
 Replicability:
 Scientific findings should be reproducible. Experiments must yield the same
results when repeated under the same conditions, ensuring reliability.
 Objectivity:
 Scientists strive to eliminate personal biases. The goal is to remain objective
and impartial in both observations and interpretations.
 Falsifiability:
 Hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable. A scientific claim should be able
to be proven wrong through evidence.
 Tentativeness:
 Scientific knowledge is not absolute. It is subject to revision as new evidence
emerges. This openness to change is a strength of the scientific method.
Limitations in use of scientific method
1. Complexity of Human Behavior
 Multifactorial Influences: Human behavior is influenced by an array of
factors—biological, psychological, social, and environmental. This complexity
makes it challenging to isolate variables and draw clear conclusions.
 Individual Differences: Each person's unique experiences, beliefs, and
cultural backgrounds can lead to variations in behavior, making it difficult to
create universally applicable findings.
2. Ethical Constraints
 Research Limitations: Ethical guidelines restrict certain types of studies,
particularly those that may cause harm, distress, or involve deception. This
can limit the scope of experimental research.
 Informed Consent: Ensuring informed consent may prevent researchers
from conducting certain studies, particularly those that require manipulation
of emotions or behavior without prior disclosure.
3. Reductionism
 Oversimplification of Complex Issues: Scientific methods often aim to break down complex
psychological phenomena into simpler components, which can overlook the intricate nature of
human emotions and thoughts.
 Neglecting Context: Focusing narrowly on specific variables may lead to a lack of consideration
for the broader context in which behavior occurs, including cultural and situational factors.

4. Replicability and Generalizability

 Replication Crisis: Many psychological studies have faced challenges in replicating findings.
Results that are not consistently reproducible raise concerns about their reliability and validity.
 Sample Bias: Studies often rely on convenience samples (e.g., college students), limiting the
generalizability of findings to diverse populations. Results may not apply to different age groups,
cultures, or socioeconomic backgrounds.

5. Subjectivity and Interpretation

 Observer Bias: Researchers’ own beliefs and expectations can inadvertently influence data
interpretation and outcomes, leading to biased results.
 Self-Report Limitations: Self-reported data can be unreliable due to factors such as social
desirability bias, memory inaccuracies, or lack of self-awareness among participants.
6. Temporal Limitations
 Cross-Sectional Studies: Many psychological studies are cross-sectional,
capturing data at one point in time. This limits the ability to observe changes
and development over time.
 Longitudinal Studies: While valuable, longitudinal studies require
significant time and resources, which can hinder the pace of research and
findings.

7. Focus on Quantitative Data

 Neglecting Qualitative Insights: The emphasis on quantitative methods
may overlook important qualitative aspects of human experience, such as
emotions, motivations, and subjective interpretations.
 Measurement Limitations: Psychological constructs like happiness or
intelligence are complex and may not be adequately captured through
standardized tests or questionnaires.
8. Cultural and Contextual Limitations
 Cultural Bias: Many psychological theories and studies are developed
within Western contexts, potentially leading to ethnocentric views that do
not account for cultural diversity.
 Contextual Sensitivity: Behavior can vary significantly based on
context, and findings from one cultural or situational setting may not
apply to others.
9. Overemphasis on Objectivity
 Subjective Experience: The drive for objectivity in scientific methods
can lead to a dismissal of subjective experiences, which are critical for
understanding the full range of human behavior and emotion.
 Qualitative Research Underutilization: Qualitative methods, which
can provide rich, contextual insights, may be undervalued in favor of
quantitative approaches.
 1. Basic vs. Applied
Research
 Basic Research
 Definition: Basic research aims to enhance our understanding of
fundamental principles and theories. It focuses on generating knowledge
without immediate practical applications.
 Purpose: To explore and explain phenomena, test theories, and develop
new concepts. It seeks to answer questions about how and why things
work.
 Examples:
 Investigating cognitive processes like memory or perception.
 Studying the effects of neurotransmitters on behavior.
 Exploring the neural mechanisms underlying learning.
 Applied Research
 Definition: Applied research seeks to solve specific, practical problems
using the knowledge gained from basic research. It aims to apply
theoretical concepts to real-world situations.
 Purpose: To address practical issues and improve processes, policies, or
treatments in various fields, including clinical psychology, education, and
organizational behavior.
 Examples:
 Developing interventions for mental health disorders.
 Evaluating the effectiveness of teaching methods in schools.
 Assessing the impact of workplace practices on employee well-being.
 2. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Research
 Quantitative Research
 Definition: Quantitative research involves the systematic investigation of phenomena
through statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. It focuses on quantifying
variables and analyzing relationships.
 Purpose: To test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions based on numerical
data.
 Methods:
 Surveys and questionnaires (closed-ended questions).
 Experiments (controlled settings with measurable outcomes).
 Observational studies (counting behaviors or events).
 Examples:
 Measuring the relationship between stress levels and academic performance using statistical
analysis.
 Conducting a randomized controlled trial to test the efficacy of a new therapy for depression.
 Qualitative Research
 Definition: Qualitative research explores phenomena through non-
numerical data, focusing on understanding experiences, perspectives,
and meanings. It seeks to provide in-depth insights into complex issues.
 Purpose: To gain a deeper understanding of participants' thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors in context.
 Methods:
 Interviews (open-ended questions).
 Focus groups (group discussions to gather diverse perspectives).
 Observational studies (rich, descriptive accounts of behaviors in natural settings).
 Examples:
 Conducting interviews with individuals who have experienced trauma to
understand their coping mechanisms.
 Exploring themes from focus groups discussing perceptions of mental health
stigma.
 From Theory to Testable
Hypothesis
1. Understand the Theory
 Definition: A theory is a broad explanation of phenomena that encompasses various
observations and findings. It often integrates multiple concepts and provides a framework
for understanding behavior.
 Example: The theory of cognitive dissonance suggests that individuals experience
discomfort (dissonance) when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes, leading them to
change one to reduce discomfort.
2. Identify Specific Variables
 Independent Variable (IV): The factor that you manipulate or control in your study.
 Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome or response that you measure, which is affected
by the independent variable.
 Example:
 Theory: Cognitive dissonance affects decision-making.
 IV: The presence of conflicting information (e.g., two contradictory advertisements).
 DV: Participants’ preferences for a product after exposure.
3. Formulate a Research Question

 Definition: A research question is a specific inquiry that your study aims to answer,
grounded in the theory and focused on particular aspects of it.
 Example: How does exposure to conflicting advertisements influence consumer
preferences for a product?

4. Develop a Testable Hypothesis

 Definition: A hypothesis is a clear, specific, and testable statement predicting the
relationship between variables. It often takes the form of an "if...then..." statement.
 Criteria for a Testable Hypothesis:
 Specificity: Clearly defined variables.
 Measurability: The ability to measure the variables quantitatively or qualitatively.
 Falsifiability: It should be possible to prove the hypothesis wrong.
 Example:
 Hypothesis: If consumers are exposed to advertisements that present conflicting information about
a product, then they will have a lower preference for that product compared to consumers who are
exposed to consistent advertisements.
 5. Operationalize the Variables
 Definition: Operationalization involves defining how you will measure or manipulate
the variables in your hypothesis.
 Example:
 IV: Create two sets of advertisements—one set with consistent messaging and another with
conflicting messages.
 DV: Measure preferences using a rating scale or choice task (e.g., asking participants to rate
their likelihood of purchasing the product).
 6. Design the Study
 Choose a Research Method: Decide whether to use experimental, correlational, or
observational methods, depending on your hypothesis and research question.
 Determine the Sample: Identify your target population and sampling method.
 Establish Procedures: Outline how you will collect data and ensure the reliability
and validity of your measurements.