Frequency modulation:

Let a signal s(t) =Acos(2πf0t + ϕ(t)). We define :

- the instantaneous phase:
Θi(t) = 2πf0t + ϕ(t)
- the instantaneous frequency:

1
Frequency modulation (FM:Frequency
Modulation) is the transformation of the
message m(t) to be transmitted into variations
of the instantaneous frequency of the signal
s(t) which is transmitted on the transmission
channel. The transformation is linear:
Fi(t) = f0+kf .m(t)
We deduce the expression of the frequency
modulated signal:

2
from where :

Temporal representation:

3
Characteristics of frequency modulation

FM has very good resistance to noise

(disturbances): it is used for high fidelity
broadcasting and satellite transmissions. It is a
constant envelope modulation, hence:
- constant power independent of the modulating
signal m(t), which facilitates the sizing and
production of transmitters;

4
- resistance to nonlinearities:

u = a0+ a1s+a2s2+ a3s3+ …

s(t) = A cos (2πf0t + ϕ(t))
u(t) = m + n cos (2πf0t + ϕ(t)) + p cos (4πf0t + 2
ϕ(t)) + q cos (6πf0t + 3ϕ(t)) + …
Band-pass filtering makes it possible to recover
the FM signal: n cos (2πf0t + ϕ(t)).
5
FM signal spectral analysis
Fourier series expansion of an FM signal
Or an FM signal:

We do not know how to calculate the spectrum of s(t) for any

modulating signal m(t). The calculation is carried out in
the case of we have a sinusoidal modulating signal:
m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt)
In this case, the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal is:
Fi(t) = f0+kfm(t) = f0+ kf Am cos(2πfmt)
6
Fi(t) varies sinusoidally in an interval [f0−Δf, f0+Δf]
with :
Δf=kf Am
Δf is called maximum frequency deviation. It is
a quantity proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating signal.
We deduce the instantaneous phase of the FM
signal:

We define the modulation index of the FM

signal:
7
The FM signal is therefore written:
s(t) = A cos (2πf0t + β sin 2πfmt)
It is a periodic signal. the development in
Complex Fourier Series :

Or Jn(β) is the Bessel function of first kind of

order n.
8
Bessel functions of the first kind
The Bessel function of first kind of order n is
defined by:

In our case: Ѳ=2*pi*fm*t and x=β

It can be developed in series by:

9
It has the following properties
• Jn(x) = (−1)nJ−n(x)
• Jn(x) = (−1)nJn(−x)
•
• For x << 1,

• For x >>1,

•
10
Graphic Representation : (Table of
Bessel Functions)

11
Spectral representation of the FM signal
According to the properties of Bessel functions:
- the spectrum of the FM signal modulated by a sinusoidal
frequency signal fmis made up of an infinity of lines spaced
apart fm, located at frequencies f0±nfm, of amplitude A×Jn(β);
- symmetrical lines at frequencies f0+nfmand f0−nfmhave the same
amplitude but are in phase opposition for n odd because J n(β) =
(−1)n Jn(−β);
- the number of lines is infinite, but Jn(β) → 0 when n→∞
therefore the FM signal can be considered as a signal with
limited bandwidth;
- when the modulation index is low, that is to say β << 1, we have:
12
therefore the spectrum consists of a line at the
frequency f0 of the carrier and two side lines at
frequencies f0−fm and f0+fm: it resembles a
dual-band AM signal with carrier except that
the side lines are in phase opposition because
J−1(β) = −J1(β). Such a signal is called a narrow-
band FM signal (NBFM: NarrowBand FM).

13
14
spectral occupancy of the FM signal
The FM signal theoretically has an infinite spectral occupancy
(infinite number of lines), it therefore requires a transmission
channel with an infinite bandwidth: unrealizable in practice.
The transmission of the FM signal is therefore carried out by
noting that, for a given value of the modulation index β, the
amplitude of the spectral lines becomes weaker and weaker
as we move away from the frequency of the carrier. We can
therefore neglect the lines whose rank is greater than a
certain value which remains to be determined as a function
of β.
Let N(β) the number of significant lines on both sides of the
carrier. The useful spectral occupation of the FM signal is
therefore:
Bs= 2*N(β)*fm 15
There are different criteria for determining N(β),
for example Carson's rule: to measure N(β),
we only keep the lines whose sum of powers
constitutes at least 98% of the total power of
the FM signal.
Using the Fourier series expansion of the FM
signal, its power is written:

16
The number N(β) of significant lines according to
Carson's rule is therefore defined by the
inequality:

that's to say :

Or :

17
Using the Bessel functions table, we find that:
N(β) = β + 1
from where :
Bs = 2(β + 1)fm
Since,we also have

18
The spectral occupancy of the FM signal therefore
depends on two quantities:
- the frequency excursion Δf, proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal;
- Frequency fmof the modulating signal.
In the case of an FM signal with a low index (β<<1), we
have Bs= 2(β+ 1)fm≈2fm : we find the spectral occupancy
of an AM signal.
In the case of an FM signal with a large index
(β >> 1), we have
Bs = 2(β+1)fm≈ 2βfm= 2kfAmtherefore the spectral
occupancy of an FM signal with a large modulation
index (called WBFM signal:WideBand FM) is
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.19
 Generalization
In the case of any modulating signal m(t), we can
use to determine the useful spectral
occupancy of the FM signal, the result found
in the case of a sinusoidal modulating signal
by defining the generalized modulation index:

20
With
• maximum deviation of instantaneous
frequency;
• Bm spectral occupancy of the modulating
signal.
Carson's rule gives:
Bs=2 (∆f +Bm )
Calculation example
In FM broadcasting we have Δf= 6 kHz and fm= 3
kHz, calculate the spectral occupancy Bs
21
FM signal generation
We deduce the functional diagram of a
modulator making it possible to obtain an FM
signal with a low modulation index.

22
This method is based on the generation of an FM signal with a low modulation index β1 such
that β1 <<1.
Consider an FM signal:

with

In the case of a sinusoidal modulating signal m(t) = Am cos(2πf mt), we have:

If B1<<1 so:

so:

The FM signal can be written as:

23
 Since |ϕ(t)| << 1, we can make the following approximations:

hence:

The low index FM signal generated by this modulator has a carrier frequency f1 and a
frequency excursion ∆f1 = β1fm, therefore its instantaneous frequency varies in the interval
[f1 − ∆f1, f1 + ∆f1]
To obtain a given modulation index β, we multiply the frequency of the low-index FM signal
by a value n. Thus, the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal is reduced to the interval
[nf1 −n∆f1, nf1 + n∆f1] so its frequency excursion becomes ∆f = n∆f1. The modulation index
of the FM signal then becomes:

The carrier frequency of the FM signal thus obtained is nf1. To obtain an FM signal with a given
carrier frequency f0, a frequency change is carried out by dual-band amplitude modulation
without a carrier with a carrier frequency f2. The FM signal obtained then has a carrier
frequency f0 such that:
24
By carrying out band-pass filtering, we can keep one of the two components f0 = f2 − nf1 or
f0 = f2 + nf1.

Thus, by suitably choosing the values of n and f2, we can obtain an FM signal of any carrier
frequency and modulation index. An FM modulator operating according to this principle is
called an Armstrong modulator. Functional diagram of the Armstrong modulator:

Armstrong's modulator

Application: the low index frequency modulator delivers an FM signal with carrier
frequency f1= 0.5 MHz and modulation index β1= 0.1. We want to obtain an
FM signal with carrier frequency f0= 98 MHz and modulation index β = 5.
Calculation of n and f2 25
We generally choose the lowest frequency, so we can take f2 = 73 MHz. The bandpass
filter must have a central frequency fc = f0 = 98 MHz.

The advantage of the Armstrong modulator lies in the fact that the oscillators used to
generate the carrier frequencies f1 and f2 have a constant frequency, which can
therefore be fixed with great precision using for example a quartz, hence good stability of
the carrier frequency of the FM signal over time, unlike the method by variation of
parameters using a varicap diode

26
 The Direct Method or Parameter Variation
Method
The FM signal is obtained by varying the
frequency of an LC oscillator by acting on the
value of the capacitance which determines the
oscillation frequency. The variable capacitance
element used is a varicap diode placed in
parallel with the capacitance of the LC circuit:

27
The varicap diode behaves like a capacitor whose value depends on the reverse voltage Vp
applied between its terminals. The capacitance of a varicap diode is:

where C0, V0 and n are constants.

For example, for diode BB909A: C0 = 30 pF, V0 = 700 mV et n = 0, 7

28
The link capacitor C1, of negligible impedance at high frequency, prevents the inductance L
from short-circuiting the modulating signal m(t). The stopping inductance L A (shock choke),
of negligible impedance at low frequency, presents a high impedance at high frequency in
order not to short-circuit the oscillator signal by the source of the modulating signal

The frequency of the oscillator is equal to the resonance frequency of the LC circuit
therefore:

Using the approximation (1 + x)^α ≈ 1 + αx for x << 1, with a low amplitude modulating
signal Vp << V0, we have:

29
so

with

and

30
 The oscillator frequency is a linear function of the modulating signal m(t). The oscillator
therefore delivers an FM signal. Such an oscillator is called a voltage controlled oscillator or
VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator).

Application:
we want to transmit a signal of amplitude Am = 10 mV on a carrier of frequency f0 = 98
MHz with a frequency excursion ∆f = 75 kHz.
Determine the values of L and C in the case where a BB109A varicap diode is used.

We have: ∆f = kfAm, hence kf = ∆f /Am= 7.5 10 = 7.5 kHz/mV.

Expressions of f0 and kf found previously, we deduce:

and

Advantage of this method: it allows significant frequency excursions to be obtained.

Disadvantage: the characteristics of the oscillator vary over time due to the aging of the
components and temperature variations. . . hence a drift in the carrier frequency. 31
 Demodulation of FM signals
• 1) Frequency Discriminator
Consider the FM signal:

With:

If we derive the signal s(t), we obtain:

and:

according to this we will have:

32
The signal (dS/dt) is an FM signal whose envelope is a linear function of the modulating signal
m(t). An envelope detection makes it possible to recover m(t).
We deduce the principle diagram of a discriminator:

Practical realization of the derivative filter: the derivative operation corresponds to a

multiplication by j2πf in the frequency domain. The transfer function of a diverter filter is
therefore

33
In practice, we carry out a linear approximation around the frequency f0 using a resonant circuit:

We choose the values of R, L and C so as to have the linear part of the resonance curve in the
interval [f0 − ∆f, f0 + ∆f], ∆f being the frequency excursion of the FM signal to be demodulated.
The demodulation of the FM signal is done on the side of the resonance curve. 34
To increase the linearity range of the bypass filter, two resonant circuits can be mounted head to
tail:

The two resonant circuits with relatively close resonance frequencies fr1 and fr2, however,
remain tricky to adjust.
Disadvantage of FM demodulation by the discriminator: sensitivity to spurious amplitude
variations of the FM signal since the frequency modulation is transformed into amplitude
modulation before being demodulated as an AM signal through the envelope detector. To solve
this problem, we precede the discriminator by a limiter which makes it possible to eliminate
spurious amplitude variations without disturbing the modulation:
35
36
 Fm demodulation using PLL : Phase Locked
Loop
The phase-locked loop (PLL) is
used when the reception
conditions of the FM signal are
too difficult, for which the
discriminator no longer behaves
satisfactorily, for example in the
case of satellite
communications.
A PLL is a loop system made up of
a phase comparator and a
voltage controlled oscillator 37
 the FM signal to be demodulated;

- y(t), the signal delivered by the phase comparator which represents the output of the PLL;

with
the output signal of the VCO which constitutes the return signal of the PLL.

The phase comparator is a device which delivers a voltage y(t) proportional to the phase shift
between the input signals:

where u K is the sensitivity of the phase comparator.

The VCO is an FM modulator whose carrier frequency is f0, equal to the carrier frequency of the
signal to be demodulated, and the sensitivity is k0.
The voltage at the output of the phase comparator is:

By deriving this expression with respect to time, we obtain:

as well as :

38
It is a first order linear differential equation. We pose:

PLL time constant

PLL gain

Thus, the PLL equation is written:

PLL index response:

In steady state, that is to say for t ≥ 3τ, we have:

39
The signal y(t) at the PLL output therefore presents a variation
proportional to the variation ∆m of the modulating signal. So if the
modulating signal varies slowly enough for the PLL to reach its
permanent speed at any time, we have indeed a demodulation of the
FM signal.
In practice, we insert a low-pass filter into the action chain of the PLL
which allows its performance to be adjusted (response time, gain,
overshoot, etc.):

40
Exercise 1:
Determine :
1. the expression of its instantaneous frequency f(t)
2. the frequency f, of the carrier
3. the frequency F of the modulating signal
4. The Δf frequency deviation
5. the modulation index m
6. the appearance of the spectrum of the modulated signal
7. its spectral size B
8. its power for antenna with resistance R = 50 Ω
41
 Exercise 2:
1. What is the frequency band Bf of an FM signal whose
modulation index δ is equal to 0.2
and the fm frequency of the modulating signal is 10
kHz?
2. What is the frequency band of an FM signal whose
modulation index δ is 3 and the
fm frequency of the modulating signal is 10 kHz?
3. What is the frequency band of an FM signal whose
modulation index δ is 5 and the
modulating frequency 1.5 kHz?
42
 Exercise 3 :
The maximum instantaneous frequency of an
FM signal is 105.525 MHz and the carrier
frequency is 105.45MHz. Knowing that the
modulating frequency is 2.5 kHz, calculate the
frequency deviation (excursion),
the demodulation index as well as the frequency
band occupied by this signal.

43
 Phase modulation
Let a signal s(t) = A cos(2πf0t + ϕ(t)). In phase
modulation (PM: Phase Modulation), the phase
shift ϕ(t) is proportional to the modulating signal:

The PM signal therefore has the expression:

To generate a PM signal, we can use an FM modulator

whose input signal is the derivative of the modulating
signal:

44
In effect :

It is a PM signal with kp = 2πkf.

FM and PM modulations are called angular modulations.

Spectral occupancy of the PM signal

In the case of a sinusoidal modulating signal m(t) = Am cos 2πfmt, the PM signal
becomes:

We note βPM = kpAm the modulation index of the PM signal. This is then
written:

According to Carson’s rule, we deduce the spectral occupancy of a PM

signal:

45