PHYSICS AND

BASIC
ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT
PRESENTED BY-SUBHASHREE P.KARSHARMA
• In physiotherapy, understanding basic physics and
electrical equipment is important, especially when dealing
with modalities that aid in pain management, muscle
stimulation, and rehabilitation.
• Introduction
• Overview: Brief introduction to the importance of
electrical principles in everyday life and various fields like
healthcare, engineering, and physics.
 Objectives
• Electric Charge (Q)
• Definition: Electric charge is a fundamental property of
particles like electrons and protons. Electrons carry a
negative charge, while protons carry a positive charge.
• Role in Electricity: Charge movement through a
conductor creates electric current.
 Voltage (V)
Definition: Voltage, or electric potential difference, is the
"pressure" or "force" that pushes electric charge through a
conductor.
Units: Measured in volts (V).
Importance: Voltage is what drives current through a
circuit. Without a potential difference, there is no flow of
electric charge.
 Electric Current (I
• Definition: Current is the rate at which electric charge
flows past a point in a circuit.
• Units: Measured in amperes (A).
• Types of Current
• Direct Current (DC): Flows in a single direction,
commonly found in batteries.
• Alternating Current (AC): Changes direction periodically,
used in household electricity.
 Resistance (R)
• Definition: Resistance is a material's opposition to the
flow of electric current.
• Units: Measured in ohms (Ω)
• Ohm's Law: V=I×R shows the relationship between
voltage, current, and resistance in a circuit.
• Factors Affecting Resistance: Material type,
temperature, length, and cross-sectional area of the
conductor.
 Power (P)
• Definition: Electrical power is the rate at which electrical
energy is converted into another form of energy (e.g., heat,
light).
• Units: Measured in watts (W).
• Formula: P=V×I, where power equals the product of voltage
and current.
• Applications: Power ratings indicate how much energy
electrical devices consume; understanding power is essential for
selecting appropriate equipment.
 Electrical Circuits
• Series Circuit: Components connected in a single path;
current is the same through each component, but voltage
divides across them.
• Parallel Circuit: Components connected across the same
two points; voltage is the same across each component,
but current divides.
 Conductors and Insulators
• Conductors: Materials like copper and aluminum that
allow current to flow easily.
• Insulators: Materials like rubber and glass that resist
current flow, used for safety to cover wires and
components.
 Magnetism and
Electromagnetism
• Magnetic Field: Produced when electric current flows
through a wire.
• Electromagnetism: The interaction between electricity
and magnetism is crucial in devices like motors and
transformers, which convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy
 Electromagnetic Radiation
(EMR)
• Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) is a form of energy that travels
through space as waves. It is produced by the motion of electrically
charged particles and encompasses a broad range of wavelengths and
frequencies.
• Key Concepts
• Wave-Particle Duality
• EM radiation behaves both as waves and as particles, called photons.
• Photons are packets of energy that travel at the speed of light
(approximately 3×10,8 meters per second.
• Wavelength and Frequency
• Wavelength (λ): The distance between two consecutive
peaks of the wave, measured in meters.
• Frequency (f): The number of wave cycles that pass a
point per second, measured in hertz (Hz).
• Relationship: Wavelength and frequency are inversely
related by the formula c=λ×f where ccc is the speed of
light.
• Energy of Electromagnetic Radiation
• The energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency, given by
E=h×f, where
• E is energy,
• h is Planck's constant,
• f is the frequency
• Higher frequency waves (e.g., gamma rays) have more energy,
while lower frequency waves (e.g., radio waves) have less power.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• The electromagnetic spectrum is the full range of

electromagnetic radiation, organized by wavelength and
frequency. It includes:
• Radio Waves:Wavelength: Longest in the spectrum (1
mm to 100 km or more).
• Applications: Communication (radio, television), radar,
and wireless networking.
Microwaves:
• Wavelength: 1 mm to 1 meter.
• Applications: Microwave ovens, satellite communications, and
radar.
Infrared (IR):
• Wavelength: 700 nm to 1 mm.
• Applications: Thermal imaging, remote controls, and night-
vision equipment.
Visible Light:
• Wavelength: 400 to 700 nanometers (nm).
• Applications: The only part of the spectrum visible to the
human eye, used in lighting and optical devices.
Ultraviolet (UV):
• Wavelength: 10 to 400 nm.
• Applications: Sterilization, fluorescence, and tanning.
• X-rays:
• Wavelength: 0.01 to 10 nm.
• Applications: Medical imaging, security scanning, and
crystallography.
• Gamma Rays:
• Wavelength: Less than 0.01 nm.
• Applications: Cancer treatment, nuclear energy, and
astrophysics.
 electrical energy
• electrical energy is used to stimulate tissues and muscles,
reduce pain, promote healing, and enhance muscle
function. The application of electrical energy can vary
depending on the treatment goal and condition being
managed
• Types of Electrical Currents
• Direct Current (DC): A continuous, unidirectional flow of
electricity, often used in iontophoresis to deliver
medication transdermally and for muscle re-education
in denervated muscles.
• Alternating Current (AC): A bidirectional flow of
current that changes direction at a specific frequency. In
electrotherapy, it’s commonly used in forms like TENS
(Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation) and
Interferential Therapy (IFT) to manage pain.
• Pulsed Current: Electrical current that is delivered in
pulses. Pulsed currents, such as in Neuromuscular
Electrical Stimulation (NMES), are used to stimulate
muscle contractions and improve muscle strength.
 Types of Electrotherapy Modalities
Using Electrical Energy
• TENS (Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation): Delivers
electrical impulses through the skin to stimulate sensory nerves,
blocking pain signals and releasing endorphins.
• NMES (Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation): Stimulates
motor nerves to cause muscle contractions, which is beneficial for
muscle strengthening and re-education, particularly after injury or
surgery.
• IFT (Interferential Therapy): Uses two high-frequency currents
that intersect to produce a low-frequency stimulation, ideal for
deeper tissue pain management and edema reduction.
• Iontophoresis: Uses direct current to deliver medications
through the skin, which can help manage inflammation
and pain.
• Physiological Effects
• Pain Relief: Electrical energy can modulate pain
pathways and stimulate endorphin release, reducing pain
perception.
• Muscle Strengthening: Stimulates muscle contractions,
helping to improve muscle strength, particularly in weak
or atrophied muscles.
• Improved Circulation: Electrical stimulation can
increase blood flow to the area, aiding in tissue repair and
reducing edema.
• Healing and Regeneration: Certain electrical currents
can stimulate cellular activities beneficial for wound
healing and tissue repair.
Considerations in Electrotherapy
• Frequency, Intensity, and Duration: These parameters
need to be carefully adjusted based on the treatment goals
and patient tolerance.
• Contraindications: Not suitable for individuals with
pacemakers, certain heart conditions, pregnancy (in some
areas), or over broken skin unless specified by a
healthcare provider.
 characteristics of lines of forces
• Lines of force, also known as electric or magnetic field
lines, represent the direction and strength of an electric
or magnetic field. These lines are a conceptual tool for
visualizing how electric and magnetic fields interact with
charges or magnetic materials.
• Direction of Lines
• Electric Field Lines: Electric lines of force radiate out
from positive charges and converge towards negative
charges. This means they show the direction a positive
test charge would move within the field.
• Magnetic Field Lines: Magnetic lines of force emerge
from the north pole of a magnet and loop around to enter
the south pole, forming continuous closed loops. Inside
the magnet, these lines go from the south pole back to the
north, completing the loop.
• . Representation of Field Strength
• The density or closeness of lines indicates the strength
of the field in that region. The closer the lines are to each
other, the stronger the field, and vice versa.
• For example, near the surface of a charged object or a
magnetic pole, lines are denser, indicating a stronger
field, while they spread out as they move away, indicating
a weaker field.
• No Intersection of Lines
• Lines of force never cross or intersect. This is because,
at any given point in space, the field can only have one
direction. If lines intersected, it would imply two different
directions for the field at that point, which is impossible.
• Starting and Ending Points
• Electric Field Lines: These lines start on positive
charges and end on negative charges in an electric field.
In cases where there’s only one charge, they either
radiate to infinity or converge from infinity.
• Magnetic Field Lines: Magnetic lines of force form
closed loops, meaning they don’t start or end on any point.
They go from the north pole to the south pole outside the
magnet and continue through the magnet from the south
pole back to the north pole.
• Tangential Field Direction
• At any point on a line of force, the tangent to the line
represents the direction of the field vector at that point. For
example, the direction of an electric force on a positive test
charge would align with the tangent of an electric field line.
• Lines Do Not Exist Physically
• Lines of force are conceptual tools; they don’t physically exist
but help visualize and analyze the behavior of electric and
magnetic fields.
• Field Lines and Test Charges
• In an electric field, a positive test charge would follow the
direction of the field lines, moving from positive to
negative. A negative charge would move in the opposite
direction, towards the positive charge.
• Similarly, magnetic materials align with magnetic field
lines, with the north-seeking end of a magnetic material
(like a compass needle) aligning with the field direction.
• Behavior in Uniform and Non-Uniform Fields
• In a uniform field (e.g., between two parallel plates),
lines are parallel and equally spaced, indicating a constant
field strength.
• In a non-uniform field, lines converge or diverge,
indicating varying field strengths across different points
 Potential Difference (Voltage)
and Electromotive Force (EMF)
• Potential Difference (Voltage) and Electromotive
Force (EMF) are related concepts in electricity, but they
have distinct meanings and applications.
• Potential Difference (Voltage)
• Definition: Potential difference (often called voltage) is
the amount of work done to move a unit charge between
two points in an electric field. It measures the energy
difference per unit charge due to the electric field
between two points.
• Unit: Volts (V)
• Symbol: V
• Formula: V=W\Q is the work done (in joules) and Qis the
charge (in coulombs).
• Direction: The potential difference is measured between
two points, with one point at a higher potential (positive)
and the other at a lower potential (negative). Current flows
from the higher potential to the lower potential in a circuit.
• Nature: Potential difference is the measure of energy used or
dropped across a component in a circuit (like a resistor or a bulb).
When a current flows through a component, the potential difference
indicates how much energy is being transferred to it or from it.
• Electromotive Force (EMF)
• Definition: EMF is the total energy provided by a source, like a
battery or generator, to move electric charges around a complete
circuit. It is the driving force that pushes electrons through a
circuit, even when no current flows.
• Unit: Volts (V)
• Symbol: E\mathcal{E}E
• Formula: In an ideal source, E=Vterminal+Vinternal\
mathcal{E} = V_{\text{terminal}} + V_{\
text{internal}}E=Vterminal​+Vinternal​, where
VterminalV_{\text{terminal}}Vterminal​is the voltage
across the terminals, and VinternalV_{\
text{internal}}Vinternal​accounts for any internal
resistance within the source.
• Nature: EMF represents the maximum potential
difference when the source is not delivering current to an
external circuit. In real scenarios, a battery’s EMF
decreases slightly when current flows due to its internal
resistance. However, EMF is still the origin of energy for
the circuit.
 Key Differences between Potential
Difference and EMF
• Source vs. Effect: EMF is the cause (originating from a
battery or generator), while potential difference is the
effect (voltage drop across circuit components).
• Presence of Current: EMF exists even when no current
flows, while potential difference usually appears across
components when current flows.
• Internal Resistance: EMF is the ideal voltage of the
source without accounting for internal resistance.
Potential difference across the terminals may be lower due
to internal resistance when current flows.
 Current electricity
• Current electricity refers to the flow of electric charge through a
conductor, like a wire, due to the presence of a potential difference
(voltage) across it. This flow of charge is what we commonly refer to as
an electric current.
• Key Concepts in Current Electricity
• Electric Current (I): The rate at which electric charge flows through a
point in a circuit. It is measured in amperes (A) and calculated by the
formula:
• I=Q\T
• ​
• where Q is the electric charge (in coulombs) and t is the
time in seconds.
• Voltage (V): Also known as electric potential difference, it
is the force that pushes electric charges to move through
a conductor. Voltage is measured in volts (V)
• Resistance (R): The opposition that a material offers to
the flow of electric current. Resistance is measured in
ohms (Ω) and is given by Ohm's Law:
• V=IR
• where V is the voltage, I is the current, and R is the
resistance.
• Ohm’s Law: A fundamental principle stating that the
current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage across it and inversely
proportional to its resistance, given by V=IR.
• Power (P): The rate at which electrical energy is
consumed or generated. Power is measured in watts (W)
and is calculated by:
• P=IV
• It can also be expressed as P=I2\R or P=V2\R
• Circuit Components and Their Functions
• Resistor: Limits or regulates the flow of electric current.
• Capacitor: Stores electrical energy temporarily and releases it when
needed.
• Inductor: Stores energy in a magnetic field when current flows through it.
• Diode: Allows current to flow in one direction only.
• Battery: Provides a direct current (DC) source by converting chemical
energy into electrical energy.
 unit of electricity
• Electricity (general unit): Electricity is measured in
several ways depending on the considered aspect.
• Voltage: Measures electric potential difference, in volts
(V).
• Current: Measures the flow of electric charge, in amperes
(A).
• Power: Measures the rate of energy usage, in watts (W).
• Charge: The total amount of electric charge, measured in
coulombs (C).
• Faraday (F): A unit related to electric charge, typically
used in electrochemistry. One faraday is the amount of
electric charge carried by one mole of electrons,
equivalent to about 96,485 coulombs.
• Volt (V): The SI unit of electric potential (voltage). One
volt is defined as the potential difference that will drive
one ampere of current against one ohm of resistance
• Ampere (A): The SI unit of electric current. One ampere
represents a flow of one coulomb of charge per second.
• Coulomb (C): The SI unit of electric charge. One coulomb
is the amount of charge transferred by a current of one
ampere in one second.
• Watt (W): The SI unit of power. One watt is equal to one
joule per second, and it represents the rate at which
electrical energy is transferred.
 RESISTANCE IN SERIES
• When resistors are connected one after another along a
single pathway, they are in series. In this setup, the same
amount of current flows through each resistor, but each
resistor can have a different voltage drop across it
depending on its resistance.
• Formula:​R​=R1​​+R2​+R3​+⋯+Rn​
• Example: If you have three resistors in series with values
R=2ohm, R2=3ohm, R3=5ohm the total resistance would
be: Rtotal=2+3+5=10ohm
• Characteristics:
• The total resistance is always greater than any individual
resistance in the series.
• The voltage divides across resistors, but the current
remains the same through each resistor.
• Resistance in Parallel
• When resistors are connected with their ends connected
to the same two points, they are said to be in parallel.
Each resistor in parallel has the same voltage across it,
but the current through each resistor can differ.
• Formula: For resistors R1, R2,…, Rn connected in
parallel, the total or equivalent resistance Rtotal​is:1\
Rtotal= 1\R1+1\R2+1\R3+……+1\Rn
 OHMS LAW AND ITS
APPLICATION TO AC AND DC
• Ohm's Law is a fundamental principle in electrical
engineering and physics, defining the relationship between
voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit. The
formula expresses the law:
• V=I×R
• V is the voltage (in volts),
• I is the current (in amperes),
• R is the resistance (in ohms).
• Ohm's Law in Direct Current (DC) Circuits
• n DC circuits, voltage and current remain constant over time. Ohm's
Law is straightforward to apply since the values of V, I, and Rare steady.
• Finding Current: If voltage V and resistance R are known, current I is
I=V/R.
• Finding Voltage: If current Iand resistance R are known, voltage V is
V=I×R.
• Finding Resistance: If voltage V and current Iare known, resistance R
is R=V/I.
• Ohms law states that’s the magnitude of an electric
current varies directly with the EMF and inversely with
the resistance. I=E\R
• I=Current in amperes
• E=EMF in volt
• R=Resistance in ohms
• Ohm’s Law helps in designing circuits to determine
resistor values and predict power consumption.
Ohm's Law in Alternating Current (AC) Circuits
AC circuits, voltage and current vary sinusoidally over time,
often expressed as RMS (root mean square) values.
Although Ohm’s Law still applies in principle,
 JOULE,S LAW
• Q=I2RT
• Where, I=Current in amperes
• R=Resistance in ohms
• T=time in seconds
• Joule's Law, primarily related to heat and energy transfer, has
applications in physiotherapy, especially in electrotherapy and
thermotherapy. In simple terms, Joule's Law states that the heat
Produced in a conductor is proportional to the square of the current I,
the resistance R, and the time t for which the current flows:
• Electrotherapy: In treatments like TENS
(Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation) and IFT
(Interferential Therapy), Joule's Law is relevant because
the heat generated in tissues due to electrical current can
aid in pain relief, muscle relaxation, and improved
circulation. Knowing the relationship between current,
resistance, and heat helps practitioners adjust device
settings for safe and effective therapy.
• Thermotherapy: In modalities like diathermy, high-
frequency current is used to generate deep tissue heating.
Joule's Law helps explain how electrical current generates
heat, allowing practitioners to use these devices safely to
treat muscle spasms, stiffness, and improve tissue
elasticity.
• Safety: Joule's Law also helps physiotherapists
understand the risk of tissue overheating or burns if the
resistance is too high or current is excessive, which is
vital for patient safety.
 FUSE
• fuse is a crucial safety component designed to protect both the
device and the patient. A fuse is a small, replaceable safety device
that breaks (or "blows") the electrical circuit if the current flowing
through it exceeds a certain level, preventing excessive current that
could lead to overheating, device damage, or patient injury.
• Overcurrent Protection: Electrotherapy devices, such as TENS
units, ultrasound machines, or diathermy equipment, rely on
controlled electrical currents. If there’s a power surge or short
circuit, a fuse stops the excessive current from reaching sensitive
internal components, helping to avoid electric shock or burns.
• Safety: A fuse helps regulate the amount of current reaching the
patient. In cases of malfunction or sudden current spikes, the fuse can
break the circuit, reducing the risk of delivering a dangerous level of
current to the patient. Patient.
• Device Longevity: By cutting off power when an overload occurs, a
fuse prevents damage to the internal circuits of electrotherapy devices,
extending their life and ensuring consistent, safe operation over time.
• Easy Replacement: Fuses are generally inexpensive and easy to
replace, making them a practical and essential part of regular
maintenance for electrotherapy equipment.
 SHOCK
Electrical Shock
This occurs when a person comes into contact with an
electrical source, leading to an unintentional flow of
electricity through the body. In electrotherapy, where
devices deliver.
 seafty precusation and
management
• For shock, safety precautions and management focus on quickly
recognizing the signs, stabilizing the person, and preventing
further harm while awaiting medical help.
• Safety Precautions:
• Stay Calm: Panic can worsen the situation, so stay calm to
assess and respond quickly.
• Ensure a Safe Environment: Remove any hazards (such as
sharp objects or harmful substances) that could pose additional
risks.
• Avoid Moving the Person: Unless absolutely necessary,
do not move a person in shock, especially if there is a
potential spinal injury, as this can worsen their condition.
• Wear Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): If
possible, wear gloves to protect yourself, especially if
there is bleeding or other bodily fluids involved.
• Watch for Allergies or Medications: If you are
administering any treatment (like an EpiPen for
anaphylactic shock), make sure you are aware of any
potential allergies or medications that could interfere.
 Management Steps for Shock:
• Call for Emergency Help (e.g., 911): Shock is a
medical emergency, so getting professional medical
assistance is essential.
• Lay the Person Down
• Place the person on their back to prevent fainting.
• If possible, elevate their legs about 12 inches to help
blood flow to the heart, unless there’s an injury to the
head, neck, spine, or legs.
• Keep Them Warm:
• Cover the person with a blanket to maintain body
temperature, but avoid overheating.
• Shock can cause body temperature to drop, so warmth
helps prevent further complications.
• Monitor Vital Signs
• Check the person’s breathing and pulse frequently.
• If they become unconscious and stop breathing, be
prepared to perform CPR if trained to do so.
• Provide Oxygen if Available: : If you have access to
oxygen and are trained to use it, providing supplemental
oxygen can help maintain tissue oxygenation.
• Do Not Give Food or Drink:
• Do not give the person anything to eat or drink, as it can
cause choking and may interfere with treatment.
• If the person is thirsty, moisten their lips instead.
• Specific Types of Shock:
• Hypovolemic Shock (Blood Loss):
• Apply pressure to control bleeding.
• Provide IV fluids if trained and equipment is available to
replace lost fluids.
• Cardiogenic Shock (Heart Issues):
• Keep the person as calm as possible to reduce stress on the heart.
• If they are conscious, place them in a semi-reclining position to
ease breathing, unless it’s contraindicated by injury.
• Septic Shock (Infection):
• Keep the person warm and monitor vital signs closely.
• Antibiotics are necessary for septic shock, so transport to a
hospital is essential for treatment.
• Anaphylactic Shock (Allergic Reaction):
• Administer an epinephrine auto-injector (e.g., EpiPen) if
available and the person is having an allergic reaction.
• Loosen tight clothing and avoid any known allergens to
prevent further reaction.
• Obstructive Shock (Blockage):
• Seek medical help immediately, as this requires hospital
treatment to remove the obstruction.
• Keep the person as comfortable as possible without
moving them excessively.
 earthing techniques
• Earthing, also known as grounding, refers to techniques
used to prevent electrical hazards and stabilize voltage
levels by connecting parts of electrical installations to the
earth. This provides a safe path for electricity to flow back
to the ground in case of a fault, protecting people from
electric shock and equipment from damage. Earthing is
crucial in residential, commercial, and industrial settings
to ensure electrical safety.
• Types of Earthing Techniques:
• Plate Earthing:
• In this method, a metal plate (usually made of copper or galvanized
iron) is buried in the ground and connected to the electrical
installation through an earthing conductor.
• The plate is typically placed vertically at a depth of around 2-3
meters in moist soil to ensure good conductivity
• Plate earthing is common in residential and small commercial
installations.
 Pipe Earthing:
• A galvanized iron (GI) pipe is used instead of a plate. The
pipe is driven into the ground and serves as the
connection between the earth and the electrical system.
• It is one of the most effective earthing methods because
the pipe allows moisture to surround it, improving
conductivity.
• This type is commonly used in large buildings, industrial
areas, and where high soil resistance is encountered.
 Rod Earthing:
• A copper or GI rod is driven into the earth to achieve
grounding. The length and diameter of the rod depend on
the soil conditions and requirements of the system.
• This technique is similar to pipe earthing but uses a solid
rod, which can be easier to install.
• Rod earthing is frequently used in transmission and
distribution networks.
 Strip or Wire Earthing:
• In this method, a strip or wire of galvanized iron or copper
is buried horizontally in a trench.
• This is suitable for areas where soil has good conductivity
and the strip can be buried to cover a large area.
• Strip earthing is typically used in substations and power
stations where large areas need to be covered.
• . Earth Mesh or Earthing Grid
• Method: An interconnected grid or mesh of copper or
galvanized steel is buried beneath the ground. This
network of conductors ensures broad distribution of
earthing.
• Use: Found in substations, power stations, and areas with
heavy equipment.
• Benefit: Reduces resistance by creating a large surface
area, useful for high-current applications.
• Chemical Earthing
• Method: Involves adding chemical compounds (like
bentonite or salt) around the grounding electrode to
improve soil conductivity.
• Use: Used in areas with high soil resistance or rocky
terrain where traditional earthing doesn’t work well.
• Benefit: Reduces soil resistance and provides stable
earthing over time.
• Purpose of Earthing Types
• Each earthing type is chosen based on the soil condition,
moisture level, and required safety level. The goal of
earthing is to:
• Protect people from electric shock
• Ensure proper operation of protection devices (like circuit
breakers)
• Protect electrical equipment from power surges and
lightning