LECTURE # 26

PROOF BY CONTRADICTION

A proof by contradiction is based on the fact that either a statement is true

or it is false but not both. Hence the supposition, that the statement to be
proved is false, leads logically to a contradiction, impossibility or absurdity,
then the supposition must be false. Accordingly, the given statement must
be true.
This method of proof is also known as reductio ad absurdum because it
relies on reducing a given assumption to an absurdity.

Many theorems in mathematics are conditional statements (pq). Now the

negation of the implication pq is
~(pq)  ~(~p q)
 ~(~p)  (~q) DeMorgan’s Law
 p  ~q
Clearly if the implication is true, then its negation must be false, i.e., leads
to a contradiction.
Hence pq  (p  ~q) c
where c is a contradiction.
Thus to prove an implication pq by contradiction method we suppose that
the condition p and the negation of the conclusion q, i.e., (p  ~q) is true and
ultimately arrive at a contradiction.

The method of proof by contradiction, may be summarized as follows:

1. Suppose the statement to be proved is false.
2. Show that this supposition leads logically to a contradiction.
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3. Conclude that the statement to be proved is true.
 THEOREM
There is no greatest integer.
PROOF
Suppose there is a greatest integer N. Then n  N for
every integer n.
Let M=N+1
Now M is an integer since it is a sum of integers.
Also M > N since M = N + 1
Thus M is an integer that is greater than the greatest integer, which is a
contradiction. Hence our supposition is not true and so there is no greatest
integer.
EXERCISE

Give a proof by contradiction for the statement:

“If n2 is an even integer then n is an even integer.”
PROOF
(First we assume that the given implication is false i.e. n 2 is an even integer
(i.e. T) and n is not even (i.e. F)).
Suppose n2 is an even integer and n is not even, so that n is odd.
Hence n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
Now n2 = (2k + 1)2
= 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2·(2k2 + 2k) + 1
= 2r + 1 where r = (2k2 + 2k) Z
This shows that n2 is odd, which is a contradiction to our supposition 2that n 2
is even. Hence the given statement is true.
 EXERCISE

Prove that if n is an integer and n 3 + 5 is odd, then n is even using

contradiction method.
SOLUTION
Suppose that n3 + 5 is odd and n is not even (odd). Since n is odd and the
product of two odd numbers is odd, it follows that n 2 is odd and n3 = n2. n is
odd. Further, since the difference of two odd number is even, it follows that
5 = (n3 + 5) - n3
is even. But this is a contradiction. Therefore, the supposition that n 3 + 5
and n are both odd is wrong and so the given statement is true.
EXERCISE

Prove by contradiction method, the statement:

If n and m are odd integers, then n + m is an even integer.
SOLUTION
Suppose n and m are odd and n + m is not even (odd).
Now n = 2p + 1 for some integer p
and m = 2q + 1 for some integer q
Hence n + m = (2p + 1) + (2q + 1)
= 2p + 2q + 2 = 2· (p + q + 1)
which is even, contradicting the assumption that n + m is odd.

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 THEOREM

The sum of any rational number and any irrational number is irrational.
PROOF
We suppose that the negation of the statement is true. That is, we suppose
that there is a rational number r and an irrational number s such that r + s is
rational.
By definition of rational a
r ……………(1)
b
and
c
r s  ……………(2)
d
for some integers a, b, c and d with b 0 and d  0.

Using (1) in (2), we get

a c
s 
b d
c a
 s 
d b
bc  ad
s (bd 0)
bd
Now bc - ad and bd are both integers, since products and difference of
integers are integers. Hence s is a quotient of two integers bc-ad and bd with
bd  0. So by definition of rational, s is rational.
This contradicts the supposition that s is irrational. Hence the supposition is
false and the theorem is true.
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 EXERCISE

2
Prove that is irrational.
PROOF
Suppose 2 is rational. Then there are integers m and n with no common
factors so that
m
2
n
Squaring both sides gives
m2
2 2
n
Or m2 = 2n2 ………………………(1)
This implies that m2 is even (by definition of even). It follows that m is
even. Hence
m=2k for some integer k (2)
Substituting (2) in (1), we get
(2k)2 = 2n2
 4k2 = 2n2
 n2 = 2k2
This implies that n2 is even, and so n is even. But we also know that m is
even. Hence both m and n have a common factor 2. But this contradicts the
supposition that m and n have no common factors. Hence our supposition is
false and so the theorem is true.
Substituting (2) in (1), we get
(2k)2 = 2n2
 4k2 = 2n2
 n2 = 2k2 5
This implies that n2 is even, and so n is even. But we also know that m is
even. Hence both m and n have a common factor 2. But this contradicts the
supposition that m and n have no common factors. Hence our supposition is
false and so the theorem is true.

EXERCISE

Prove by contradiction that 6 7 2 is irrational.

PROOF
First we assume our statement to be false.Suppose 6  7 2 is rational.
Then by definition of rational,
for some integers a and b with b  0.
Now consider, a
6 7 2 
b
a
7 2 6 
b
6b  a
 7 2
b
6b  a
 2
7b
Since a and b are integers, so are 6b - a and 7b and 7b  0;
hence 2 is a quotient of the two integers 6b - a and 7b with 7b  0.
Accordingly, 2 is rational (by definition of rational).
This contradicts the fact that 2 is rational.
Hence our supposition is false and so 6  7 2 is rational.
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 EXERCISE

Prove that 2 is irrational.

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SOLUTION
2 3
Suppose is rational. Then, by definition
of rational, there exists integers a and b with b0 such that
a
2 3
b
Squaring both sides, we get
a2
2 32 2 3  2
b
a2
 2 2 3  2  5
b
a 2  5b 2
 2 6
b2
a 2  5b 2
 6
2b 2
Since a and b are integers, so are therefore a2 - 5b2 and 2b2 with 2b20.
Hence 6 is the quotient of two integers a 2 - 2b2 and 2b2 with 2b20.
Accordingly, 6 is rational. But this is a contradiction, since 6 is not
rational. Hence our supposition is false and so
2 3 is irrational.

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 REMARK
The sum of two irrational numbers need not be irrational
in general for
(6  7 2 )  (6  7 2 ) 6  6 12 which is rational.

EXERCISE

Prove that for any integer a and any prime number p, if p|a, then
p | (a + 1).
PROOF
Suppose there exists an integer a and a prime number
p such that p|a and p|(a+1).
Then by definition of divisibility there exist integer r and s so that
a = p·r and a + 1 = p·s
It follows that
1 = (a + 1) - a
= p·s - p·r
= p·(s-r) where s - r Z
This implies p|1.
But the only integer divisors of 1 are 1 and -1 and since p is prime p>1. This
is a contradiction.
Hence the supposition is false, and the given statement is true.

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 THEOREM

The set of prime numbers is infinite.

PROOF
Suppose the set of prime numbers is finite.
Then, all the prime numbers can be listed, say, in ascending order:
p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5, p4 = 7, …, pn
Consider the integer
N = p1.p2.p3. … . pn + 1
Then N > 1. Since any integer greater than 1 is divisible by some prime
number p, therefore p|N.
Also since p is prime, p must equal one of the prime numbers
p 1, p 2, p 3, … , p n .
Thus
p| (p1.p2.p3. … . pn)
But then
p | (p1.p2.p3. … . pn + 1) (doesnot dividie)
So p | N(doesnot dividie)
Thus p | N and p | N, which is a contradiction.
Hence the supposition is false and the theorem is true.

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 PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITION

A proof by contraposition is based on the logical equivalence between a

statement and its contrapositive. Therefore, the implication p  q can be
proved by showing that its contrapositive ~ q  ~ p is true. The
contrapositive is usually proved directly.
The method of proof by contrapositive may be summarized as:
1. Express the statement in the form if p then q.
2. Rewrite this statement in the contrapositive form
if not q then not p.
3. Prove the contrapositive by a direct proof.

EXERCISE

Prove that for all integers n, if n2 is even then n is even.

PROOF
The contra positive of the given statement is:
“if n is not even (odd) then n2 is not even (odd)”
We prove this contrapositive statement directly.
Suppose n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for some k  Z
Now n2 = (2k+1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2·(2k2 + 2k) + 1
= 2·r + 1 where r = 2k2 + 2k Z
Hence n2 is odd. Thus the contrapositive statement is true and so the given
statement is true.

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 EXERCISE

Prove that if 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.

PROOF
The contrapositive of the given conditional statement is
“ if n is even then 3n + 2 is even”
Suppose n is even, then
n = 2k for some k Z
Now 3n + 2 = 3 (2k) + 2
= 2. (3k + 1)
= 2.r where r = (3k + 1)  Z
Hence 3n + 2 is even. We conclude that the given statement is true since its
contrapositive is true.
EXERCISE

Prove that if n is an integer and n 3 + 5 is odd, then n is even.

PROOF
Suppose n is an odd integer. Since, a product of two odd integers is odd,
therefore n2 = n.n is odd; and n3 = n2.n is odd.
Since a sum of two odd integers is even therefore n 3 + 5 is even.
Thus we have prove that
if n is odd then n3 + 5 is even
Since this is the contrapositive of the given conditional statement, so the
given statement is true.

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 EXERCISE

Prove that if n2 is not divisible by 25, then n is not divisible by 5.

SOLUTION
The contra positive statement is:
“if n is divisible by 5, then n 2 is divisible by 25”
Suppose n is divisible by 5. Then by definition of divisibility
n = 5·k for some integer k
Squaring both sides
n2 = 25·k2 where k2 Z
 n2 is divisible by 25.

EXERCISE

Prove that if |x| > 1 then x > 1 or x < -1 for all x  R.

PROOF
The contrapositive statement is:
if x  1 and x -1 then |x|  1 for x R.
Suppose that x  1 and x  -1
 x 1 and x  -1
 -1 x  1
and so
|x|  1
Equivalently |x|  1
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 EXERCISE

Prove the statement by contraposition:

For all integers m and n, if m + n is even then m and n are both even or m
and n are both odd.
PROOF
The contrapositive statement is:
“For all integers m and n, if m and n are not both even and m and n are not
both odd, then m + n is not even.
Or more simply,
“For all integers m and n, if one of m and n is even and the other is odd,
then m + n is odd”

Suppose m is even and n is odd. Then

m = 2p for some integer p
and n = 2q + 1 for some integer q
Now m+n = (2p) + (2q + 1)
= 2·(p+q) + 1
= 2·r + 1 where r = p+q is an integer
Hence m + n is odd.
Similarly, taking m as odd and n even, we again arrive at the result that m +
n is odd.
Thus, the contrapositive statement is true. Since an implication is logically
equivalent to its contrapositive so the given implication is true.

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