CVLE 465

Earth Retaining Structures

Lecture 1
Lateral Earth Pressures

1
 Introduction

 Vertical and near-vertical slopes are supported by retaining walls,

cantilever sheet-pile walls, braced cuts, and other similar structures.

 The design of these retaining structures depends on several factors,

such as the type and amount of wall movement, the shear strength
parameters of the soil, the unit weight of the soil, and the drainage
conditions in the backfill.
Case Studies of Retaining Structure Failures
Case Studies of Retaining Structure Failures
Case Studies of Retaining Structure Failures
Introduction
 The lateral earth pressure on a wall restrained from moving is the at-
rest earth pressure.

 The pressure on a wall that tilts away from the retained soil is the
active earth pressure.

 The pressure on a wall that is pushed into the soil is the passive earth
pressure.
Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest
 For a vertical wall illustrated in the figure on the following slide:
 H = height of wall, = unit weight of retained soil, and there is a
uniform load of unit area. The shear strength of the soil is defined
as

 = cohesion

 = effective angle of friction

 = effective normal stress

Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest
Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest
At any depth z below the ground surface, the vertical subsurface stress is

If the wall is at rest and is not allowed to move at all, either away from
the soil mass or into the soil mass, the lateral pressure at a depth z is

= pore water pressure = coefficient of at-rest pressure

Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest
For normally consolidated soil K o 1  sin  '

For overconsolidated soil, the at-rest earth pressure coefficient may be

expressed as
 = overconsolidation ratio
Ko 
1 
With a properly selected value of the at-rest earth pressure coefficient,
the equation can be used to determine the variation of
lateral earth pressure with depth z.
Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest
The figure below shows the variation of with depth for the wall.

The total force (Po) per unit length of the wall can be determined by the
equation

= area of rectangle 1 = area of triangle 2

Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest
The figure on the following slide can be used for structures with a water
table located at a depth z < H.

If the effective unit weight of soil below the water table equals , then

at

at

at
Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest
Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest
Determining the total pressure distribution on the wall requires adding
the hydrostatic pressure (u).

From z = 0 to z = H1, u = 0
If z = H2, then

Total pressure is
Rankine Active Earth Pressure
If a wall tends to move away from the soil a distance ( ), the soil
pressure on the wall at any depth will decrease.

For a frictionless wall, if movement occurs then .

The Mohr’s circles corresponding to wall displacements are shown as

circles a and b in the figure below
Rankine Active Earth Pressure
If the displacement of the wall continues to increase, the corresponding
Mohr’s circle eventually will just touch the Mohr–Coulomb failure envelope
defined by the equation

The slip lines (failure planes) in the soil mass will then make angles of
with the horizontal, as shown in the figure on the next slide.
Rankine Active Earth Pressure
Rankine Active Earth Pressure
For circle c in the Mohr’s circle figure, we can use the equation
Rankine Active Earth Pressure
The variation of the active pressure with depth for the wall shown in the
previous figure is given by the figure on the following slide.

The pressure distribution shows that at z = 0 the active pressure equals

 2c ' K a , indicating a tensile stress that decreases with depth and
becomes zero at z = zc, or

= depth of tensile crack

Total Rankine active force per unit length of the wall before the tensile
crack occurs is
Rankine Active Earth Pressure
Rankine Active Earth Pressure
After the tensile crack appears, the force per unit length on the wall will
be caused only by the pressure distribution between depths z = zc and
z=H

This force may be expressed as

1  2c ' 
Pa   H   (HK a  2c ' K a )
2   Ka 

 Assumptions of Rankine's theory
 Rankine approached the lateral earth pressure problem with the following
assumptions:
1.The soil is homogeneous and isotropic, which means c, φ and γ have the same values
everywhere, and they have the same values in all directions at every point (i.e., the
strength on a vertical plane is the same as that on a horizontal plane). This discussion
will be expanded later to consider layered soils, where each layer has different values
of c, φ and γ∙
2.The most critical shear surface is a plane. In reality, it is slightly concave up, but this is
a reasonable assumption (especially for the active case) and it simplifies the analysis.
3.The ground surface is a plane (although it does not necessarily need to be level).
4.The wall is infinitely long so that the problem may be analyzed in only two
dimensions. Geotechnical engineers refer to this as a plane strain condition.
5.The wall moves sufficiently to develop the active or passive condition.
6.The resultant of the normal and shear forces that act on the back of the wall is
inclined at an angle parallel to the ground surface (Coulomb's theory provides a more
accurate model of shear forces acting on the wall).
22
16.5 Cont.
A Generalized Case for Rankine Active Pressure—
Granular Backfill
The figure below shows a retaining wall whose back is inclined at an angle
with the vertical. The granular backfill is inclined at an angle with the
horizontal.
A Generalized Case for Rankine Active Pressure—
Granular Backfill
 For a Rankine active case, the lateral earth pressure at a depth z can
be given as

z cos 1  sin2  '  2sin  ' cos a

 a' 
cos  sin2  '  sin2 
where
A Generalized Case for Rankine Active Pressure—
Granular Backfill
'

The pressure a will be inclined at an angle with the plane drawn at right
angle to the backface of the wall and

The active force for unit length of the wall can be calculated as
A Generalized Case for Rankine Active Pressure—
Granular Backfill
The location and direction of the resultant force Pa is shown in the figure
below
A Generalized Case for Rankine Active Pressure—
Granular Backfill
There are special cases for a vertical backface of a wall as shown in the
figure below
A Generalized Case for Rankine Active Pressure—
Granular Backfill
If the backfill of a frictionless retaining wall is a granular soil and rises at
an angle with respect to the horizontal, we can use the equation

= angle of friction of soil

At any depth of z, the Rankine active pressure may be expressed as

The total force per unit length of the wall is

Rankine Active Pressure with Vertical Wall
Backface and Inclined Soil Backfill
For a frictionless retaining wall with a vertical backface and inclined
backfill of soil, the active pressure at any depth z can be given as

With

  c' 
2cos  2  cos ' sin  '
2
' 1   z 
Ka  2 '   
1
cos    2 2 '  c' 
 z 
2 '  c' 
[4cos  (cos   cos  )4  cos  8  cos2  sin  ' cos  ']
2
 z 
    
Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure
Coulomb proposed a theory for calculating the lateral earth pressure on a
retaining wall with granular soil backfill.

This theory takes wall friction into account.

In applying Coulomb’s active earth pressure theory, consider a retaining

wall with the backface inclined at an angle . The backfill is a granular
soil that slopes at an angle with the horizontal. The angle of friction
between the soil and the wall has a value of .

These restraints are shown in the figure on the following slide.

Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure
Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure
Under active pressure, the wall will move away from the soil mass.

To find the active force, consider a possible soil failure wedge ABC1. The
forces acting on this wedge are

1. The weight of the wedge (W)

2. The resultant, R, of the normal and resisting shear forces along the
surface, BC1. (The force R will be inclined at an angle to the normal
drawn to BC1).
3. The active force per unit length of the wall, Pa, which will be inclined
an angle  'to the normal drawn to the backface of the wall.
Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure
The maximum value of Pa determined is Coulomb’s active force, which is
determined by the equations

sin2(    ' )
Ka  2
2 '
 sin(   )sin(   ) 
' ' '
sin  sin(    )  1  ' 
 sin(    )sin(   ) 

= Coulomb’s active earth pressure coefficient

= height of the wall

Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure

The line of action of the resultant force (Pa) will act at a distance H/3
above the base of the wall and will be inclined at an angle to the
normal drawn to the back of the wall.

In designing retaining walls, the value of the wall friction angle is between

' 2 '
and 
2 3
The active earth pressure coefficients for various values are provided in
Tables 16.6 and 16.7 in the book.
Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure
Referring to the figure below, we calculate active force as

where
Lateral Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge
Sometimes the theory of elasticity is used to determine the lateral earth
pressure on unyielding retaining structures caused by various types of
surcharge loading.

According to the theory of elasticity, the stress at any depth (z) on a

retaining structure caused by a line load of intensity q/unit length (see
the figure on the following slide) may be given by

horizontal stress at depth z

(The terms a and b are explained by the figure on the following slide)
Lateral Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge
Lateral Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge
Since soil is not a perfectly elastic medium, we deviate from the equation

The modified equations are

if

and

if
Lateral Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge
The figure below shows a strip load with an intensity of q/unit area
located at a distance b’ from a wall of height H.

Based on the theory of elasticity, the horizontal stress ( ) at any depth z

on a retaining structure is

(angles are shown in the figure below)

Lateral Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge
It is important to stress that for these soils, the right-hand side of the
equation should be doubled to account for the yielding soil continuum.

2q
 (   sin  cos2 )


The total force per unit length (P) due to the strip loading only may be
expressed as

With

'
  b 
 a'  b' 
1
1 tan   (deg) 2 tan   (deg)
H  H 
Lateral Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge
The location of the resultant force can be given as

where
Active Earth Pressure for Earthquake
Conditions—Granular Backfill
Coulomb’s active earth pressure theory can be extended to take into
account the forces caused by an earthquake.

The figure below shows a condition of active pressure with a granular

backfill (c’ = 0).
Active Earth Pressure for Earthquake
Conditions—Granular Backfill
For forces caused by earthquakes, we must also consider forces acting on
the horizontal and vertical wedge, khW and kvW, respectively.

With

kh == horizontal earthquake acceleration component

acceleration due to gravity

kv == vertical earthquake acceleration component

acceleration due to gravity
Active Earth Pressure for Earthquake
Conditions—Granular Backfill
For situations involving earthquakes we also have the equations

and

sin2( '     ' )

K ae  2
' 2 ' '
 sin( '   ' )sin( '   '   ) 
cos sin  sin(      )  1  ' ' 
 sin(      )sin(   ) 

Kae = active earth pressure coefficient

Active Earth Pressure for Earthquake
Conditions—Granular Backfill
Use the following procedure to determine the location of the resultant
force Pae.

1. Calculate Pae with the equation

2. Calculate Pa with the equation

3. Calculate

4. Assume acts at a distance of from the bottom of the wall

5. Assume that acts at a distance 0.6H from the bottom of the wall

6. Calculate the location of the resultant as

Active Earth Pressure for Earthquake Condition
There is a procedure for estimation of Pae for a retaining wall with a
vertical backface and horizontal backfill with a soil.

This procedure applies to the figure below which we can refer to as the
ABC trail failure wedge.
Active Earth Pressure for Earthquake Condition

For the analysis, we make the following assumptions:

1. The effect of tensile crack is not taken into account.
2. The friction and adhesion between the backface of the wall and backfill
are neglected.

The figure on the following slide shows the polygon for all forces acting on
the wedge ABC.

According to this analysis, the critical wedge angle for the

maximum value of Pae can be given as
Active Earth Pressure for Earthquake Condition
Active Earth Pressure for Earthquake Condition

The magnitude of Pae can be expressed as

where sin( '   ' )

cos( '  ') 
tanc
K ae 
cos '(cos '  tanc sin  ' )

cos '(1  tan2 c )

K aec 
tanc (cos '  tanc sin  ' )
Rankine Passive Earth Pressure
The figure below shows a vertical frictionless retaining wall with a
horizontal backfill.

At depth z, the effective vertical pressure on a soil element is .

If the wall does not yield at all, the lateral stress at that depth will be
. This stress is illustrated by the Mohr’s circle a in the figure
below.
Rankine Passive Earth Pressure
If the wall is pushed into the soil mass by an amount as shown in the
figure below, the vertical stress at depth z will stay the same

However, the horizontal stress will increase and result in being

greater than .
 Rankine Passive Earth Pressure
If the wall moves further inward, the stresses at depth z will ultimately reach
the state represented by Mohr’s circle c.

Note that this Mohr’s circle touches the Mohr–Coulomb failure envelope, which
implies that the soil behind the wall will fail by being pushed upward.

The horizontal stress at this point is known as the Rankine passive pressure.
Rankine Passive Earth Pressure
For Mohr’s circle c, the major principal stress is while the minor stress is
.

From this we get the equations

Rankine Passive Earth Pressure – Vertical Backface and
Inclined Backfill
For a frictionless vertical retaining wall with a granular backfill, the
pressure is determined by the equation

 p' zK p
The passive force is

with
Rankine Passive Earth Pressure – Vertical Backface and
Inclined Backfill
If the backfill of the frictionless vertical retaining wall is , then

With

  c' 
2cos  2  cos ' sin  '
2
' 1   z 
Kp  2 '   
1
cos    2 2 '  c' 
 z 
2 '  c' 
[4cos  (cos   cos  )4  cos  8  cos2  sin  ' cos  ']
2
 z 
    
Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure
Coulomb presented an analysis for determining the passive earth pressure
for walls with friction and retaining a granular backfill material.

To determine passive earth pressure, we use the figure below.

Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure

For a trial failure wedge of soil, such as ABC1 , the forces per unit length
of the wall acting on the wedge are

1. The weight of the wedge, W

2. The resultant, R, of the normal and shear forces on the plane BC 1

3. The passive force, Pp

Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure

The figure below shows the force triangle at equilibrium for the trial
wedge ABC1.

From this force triangle, the value of Pp can be determined, because the
direction of all three forces and the magnitude of one force are known.
Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure

The minimum value of Pp in this diagram is Coulomb’s passive force,

mathematically expressed as

sin2(    ' )
Kp  2
2 '
 sin( '   ' )sin( '   ) 
sin  sin(    )  1  ' 
 sin(    )sin(   a) 
Comments on the Failure Surface Assumption for
Coulomb’s Pressure Calculations

Coulomb’s pressure calculation methods for active and passive pressure

assume the acceptance of plane failure surface.

For walls with friction, this assumption does not hold in practice.

The nature of actual failure surface in the soil mass for active and passive
pressure is shown in the figures on the following slide.
Comments on the Failure Surface Assumption for
Coulomb’s Pressure Calculations