lecture2

Uninformed Search

1
 Building Goal-Based Agents
• We have a goal to reach
– Driving from point A to point B
– Put 8 queens on a chess board such that no one attacks another
– Prove that John is an ancestor of Mary
• We have information about where we are now at the beginning
• We have a set of actions we can take to move around (change
from where we are)
• Objective: find a sequence of legal actions which will bring us
from the start point to a goal

2
 What is the goal to be achieved?
• Could describe a situation we want to achieve, a set of properties
that we want to hold, etc.
• Requires defining a “goal test” so that we know what it means to
have achieved/satisfied our goal.
• This is a hard part that is rarely tackled in AI, usually assuming
that the system designer or user will specify the goal to be
achieved.

3
 What are the actions?
• Quantify all of the primitive actions or events that are sufficient to
describe all necessary changes in solving a task/goal.
• No uncertainty associated with what an action does to the world.
That is, given an action (aka operator or move) and a description
of the current state of the world, the action completely specifies
– Precondition: if that action CAN be applied to the current
world (i.e., is it applicable and legal), and
– Effect: what the exact state of the world will be after the action
is performed in the current world (i.e., no need for "history"
information to be able to compute what the new world looks
like).

4
 Actions
• Note also that actions can all be considered as discrete events that
can be thought of as occurring at an instant of time.
– That is, the world is in one situation, then an action occurs and
the world is now in a new situation. For example, if "Mary is in
class" and then performs the action "go home," then in the next
situation she is "at home." There is no representation of a point
in time where she is neither in class nor at home (i.e., in the
state of "going home").
• The number of operators needed depends on the representation
used in describing a state.

5
 Representing states
• At any moment, the relevant world is represented as a state
– Initial (start) state: S
– An action (or an operation) changes the current state to another
state (if it is applied): state transition
– An action can be taken (applicable) only if the its precondition is
met by the current state
– For a given state, there might be more than one applicable actions
– Goal state: a state satisfies the goal description or passes the goal
test
– Dead-end state: a non-goal state to which no action is applicable

6
 Representing states
• Stat space:
– Includes the initial state S and all other states that are reachable from S by a
sequence of actions
– A state space can be organized as a graph:
nodes: states in the space
arcs: actions/operations
• The size of a problem is usually described in terms of the number of states (or
the size of the state space) that are possible.
– Tic-Tac-Toe has about 3^9 states.
– Checkers has about 10^40 states.
– Rubik's Cube has about 10^19 states.
– Chess has about 10^120 states in a typical game.
– GO has more states than Chess

7
 Closed World Assumption
• We will generally use the Closed World Assumption.
• All necessary information about a problem domain is
available in each percept so that each state is a complete
description of the world.
• There is no incomplete information at any point in time.

8
 Knowledge representation issues
• What's in a state ?
– Is the color of the boat relevant to solving the Missionaries and Cannibals
problem? Is sunspot activity relevant to predicting the stock market? What to
represent is a very hard problem that is usually left to the system designer to
specify.
• What level of abstraction or detail to describe the world.
– Too fine-grained and we'll "miss the forest for the trees." Too coarse-grained and
we'll miss critical details for solving the problem.
• The number of states depends on the representation and level of
abstraction chosen.
– In the Remove-5-Sticks problem, if we represent the individual sticks, then there
are 17-choose-5 possible ways of removing 5 sticks. On the other hand, if we
represent the "squares" defined by 4 sticks, then there are 6 squares initially and
we must remove 3 squares, so only 6-choose-3 ways of removing 3 squares.

9
 Some example problems
• Toy problems and micro-worlds
– 8-Puzzle
– Missionaries and Cannibals
– Cryptarithmetic
– Remove 5 Sticks
– Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP)
• Real-world-problems

10
 8-Puzzle
Given an initial configuration of 8 numbered tiles on a 3 x
3 board, move the tiles in such a way so as to produce a
desired goal configuration of the tiles.

11
 8 puzzle
• State: 3 x 3 array configuration of the tiles on the board.
• Operators: Move Blank square Left, Right, Up or Down.
– This is a more efficient encoding of the operators than one in which
each of four possible moves for each of the 8 distinct tiles is used.
• Initial State: A particular configuration of the board.
• Goal: A particular configuration of the board.
• The state space is partitioned into two subspaces
• NP-complete problem, requiring O(2^k) steps where k is
the length of the solution path.
• 15-puzzle problems (4 x 4 grid with 15 numbered tiles), and
N-puzzles (N = n^2-1)

12
A portion of the state space of a 8-Puzzle problem

5 4
6 1 8
7 3 2

5 4 5 4 8
6 1 8 6 1
7 3 2 7 3 2

5 2 1
5 1 4 5 4
4 3
6 8 6 1 8
7 3 2 7 3 2

5 1 4
6 8
7 3 2
13
Place eight queens on a chessboard such that no queen attacks any other!
N queens problem formulation 1
The 8-Queens Problem
• States: Any arrangement of 0 to 8 queens on the board
• Initial state: 0 queens on the board
• Successor function: Add a queen in any square
• Goal test: 8 queens on the board, none are attacked
N queens problem formulation 2
• States: Any arrangement of 8 queens on the board
• Initial state: All queens are at column 1
• Successor function: Change the position of any one queen
• Goal test: 8 queens on the board, none are attacked
N queens problem formulation 3
• States: Any arrangement of k queens in the first k rows such that non are attacked
• Initial state: 0 queens on the board
• Successor function: Add a queen to the (k+1)th row so that none are attacked.
• Goal test : 8 queens on the board, none are attacked

14
 Missionaries and Cannibals
There are 3 missionaries, 3 cannibals, and
1 boat that can carry up to two people
on one side of a river.
• Goal: Move all the missionaries and
cannibals across the river.
• Constraint: Missionaries can never be
outnumbered by cannibals on either side of
river, or else the missionaries are killed.
• State: configuration of missionaries and
cannibals and boat on each side of river.
• Operators: Move boat containing some set
of occupants across the river (in either
direction) to the other side.

15
 Missionaries and Cannibals Solution
Near side Far side
0 Initial setup: MMMCCC B -
1 Two cannibals cross over: MMMC B CC
2 One comes back: MMMCC B C
3 Two cannibals go over again: MMM B CCC
4 One comes back: MMMC B CC
5 Two missionaries cross: MC B MMCC
6 A missionary & cannibal return: MMCC B MC
7 Two missionaries cross again: CC B MMMC
8 A cannibal returns: CCC B MMM
9 Two cannibals cross: C B MMMCC
10 One returns: CC B MMMC
11 And brings over the third: - B MMMCCC

16
 Cryptarithmetic
• Find an assignment of digits (0, ..., 9) to letters so that a
given arithmetic expression is true. examples: SEND +
MORE = MONEY and
FORTY Solution: 29786
+ TEN 850
+ TEN 850
----- -----
SIXTY 31486
F=2, O=9, R=7, etc.
• Note: In this problem, the solution is NOT a sequence of
actions that transforms the initial state into the goal state,
but rather the solution is simply finding a goal node that
includes an assignment of digits to each of the distinct
letters in the given problem.
17
 Remove 5 Sticks

• Given the following configuration of

sticks, remove exactly 5 sticks in such
a way that the remaining configuration
forms exactly 3 squares.

18
 Traveling Salesman Problem
• Given a road map of n cities, find the shortest tour which
visits every city on the map exactly once and then return to
the original city
• (Geometric version):
– a complete graph of n vertices.
– n!/2n legal tours
– Find one legal tour that is shortest

19
 Formalizing Search in a State Space
• A state space is a graph, (V, E) where V is a set of nodes
and E is a set of arcs, where each arc is directed from a node
to another node
• node: corresponds to a state
– state description
– plus optionally other information related to the parent of the
node, operation to generate the node from that parent, and other
bookkeeping data)
• arc: corresponds to an applicable action/operation.
– the source and destination nodes are called as parent
(immediate predecessor) and child (immediate successor)
nodes with respect to each other
– ancestors( (predecessors) and descendents (successors)
– each arc has a fixed, non-negative cost associated with it,
corresponding to the cost of the action
20
• node generation: making explicit a node by applying
an action to another node which has been made explicit
• node expansion: generate all children of an explicit
node by applying all applicable operations to that node
• One or more nodes are designated as start nodes
• A goal test predicate is applied to a node to determine if its
associated state is a goal state
• A solution is a sequence of operations that is associated
with a path in a state space from a start node to a goal node
• The cost of a solution is the sum of the arc costs on the
solution path

21
• State-space search is the process of searching through a
state space for a solution by making explicit a sufficient
portion of an implicit state-space graph to include a goal
node.
– Hence, initially V={S}, where S is the start node; when S is
expanded, its successors are generated and those nodes are
added to V and the associated arcs are added to E. This
process continues until a goal node is generated (included in
V) and identified (by goal test)
• During search, a node can be in one of the three
categories:
– Not generated yet (has not been made explicit yet)
– OPEN: generated but not expanded
– CLOSED: expanded
– Search strategies differ mainly on how to select an OPEN
node for expansion at each step of search

22
 A General State-Space Search Algorithm
• Node n
– state description
– parent (may use a backpointer) (if needed)
– Operator used to generate n (optional)
– Depth of n (optional)
– Path cost from S to n (if available)
• OPEN list
– initialization: {S}
– node insertion/removal depends on specific search strategy
• CLOSED list
– initialization: {}
– organized by backpointers

23
 A General State-Space Search Algorithm

open := {S}; closed :={};

repeat
n := select(open); /* select one node from open for expansion */
if n is a goal
then exit with success; /* delayed goal testing */
expand(n)
/* generate all children of n
put these newly generated nodes in open (check duplicates)
put n in closed (check duplicates) */
until open = {};
exit with failure

24
 Some Issues
• Search process constructs a search tree, where
– root is the initial state S, and
– leaf nodes are nodes
• not yet been expanded (i.e., they are in OPEN list) or
• having no successors (i.e., they're "deadends")
• Search tree may be infinite because of loops even if state
space is small
• Search strategies mainly differ on select (open)
• Each node represents a partial solution path (and cost of the
partial solution path) from the start node to the given node.
– in general, from this node there are many possible paths (and
therefore solutions) that have this partial path as a prefix.

25
 Evaluating Search Strategies
• Completeness
– Guarantees finding a solution whenever one exists
• Time Complexity
– How long (worst or average case) does it take to find a solution?
Usually measured in terms of the number of nodes expanded
• Space Complexity
– How much space is used by the algorithm? Usually measured in
terms of the maximum size that the “OPEN" list becomes during
the search
• Optimality/Admissibility
– If a solution is found, is it guaranteed to be an optimal one? For
example, is it the one with minimum cost?

26
 Uninformed vs. Informed Search
• Uninformed Search Strategies
– Breadth-First search
– Depth-First search
– Uniform-Cost search
– Depth-First Iterative Deepening search
• Informed Search Strategies
– Hill climbing
– Best-first search
– Greedy Search
– Beam search
– Algorithm A
– Algorithm A*

27
Example Illustrating Uninformed Search Strategies

S
1 5 8

A B C
3 9
7 4 5
D E G

28
 Breadth-First
• Algorithm outline:
– Always select from the OPEN the node with the smallest depth for
expansion, and put all newly generated nodes into OPEN
– OPEN is organized as FIFO (first-in, first-out) list, I.e., a queue.
– Terminate if a node selected for expansion is a goal
• Properties
– Complete
– Optimal (i.e., admissible) if all operators have the same cost.
Otherwise, not optimal but finds solution with shortest path length
(shallowest solution).
– Exponential time and space complexity,
O(b^d) nodes will be generated, where
d is the depth of the solution and
b is the branching factor (i.e., number of children) at each
node
29
 Breadth-First
s
– A complete search tree of depth 1
d where each non-leaf node has 1 b
b children, has a total of 1 + b +
2
b^2 + ... + b^d = (b^(d+1) - b^2
1)/(b-1) nodes
– Time complexity (# of nodes
generated): O(b^d)
– Space complexity (maximum
length of OPEN): O(b^d) d b^d

– For a complete search tree of depth 12, where every node at depths
0, ..., 11 has 10 children and every node at depth 12 has 0 children,
there are 1 + 10 + 100 + 1000 + ... + 10^12 = (10^13 - 1)/9 =
O(10^12) nodes in the complete search tree.
• BFS is suitable for problems with shallow solutions

30
 Breadth-First Search

exp. node OPEN list CLOSED list

{S} {}
S {ABC} {S}
A {BCDEG} {S A}
B { C D E G G' } {S A B}
C { D E G G' G" } {S A B C}
D { E G G' G" } {S A B C D}
E { G G' G" } {S A B C D E}
G { G' G" } {S A B C D E}
Solution path found is S A G <-- this G also has cost 10
Number of nodes expanded (including goal node) = 7

31
CLOSED List: the search tree connected by backpointers

S
1 5 8

A B C
3 9
7 4 5

D E G G’ G”

32
 Depth-First (DFS)
• Algorithm outline:
– Always select from the OPEN the node with the
greatest depth for expansion, and put all newly
generated nodes into OPEN
– OPEN is organized as LIFO (last-in, first-out) list.
– Terminate if a node selected for expansion is a goal goal
• May not terminate without a "depth bound," i.e., cutting off search
below a fixed depth D (How to determine the depth bound?)
• Not complete (with or without cycle detection, and with or without a
cutoff depth)
• Exponential time, O(b^d), but only linear space, O(bd), required
• Can find deep solutions quickly if lucky
• When search hits a deadend, can only back up one level at a time even
if the "problem" occurs because of a bad operator choice near the top
of the tree. Hence, only does "chronological backtracking"
33
 Depth-First Search
return GENERAL-SEARCH(problem, ENQUEUE-AT-FRONT)
exp. node OPEN list CLOSED list
{S}
S {ABC} S
1 8
A { D E G B C} 5
D {EGBC} A B C
E {GBC} 3
7
9

G {BC} D E G

Solution path found is S A G <-- this G has cost 10

Number of nodes expanded (including goal node) = 5

34
 Uniform-Cost (UCS)
• Let g(n) = cost of the path from the start node to an open node n
• Algorithm outline:
– Always select from the OPEN the node with the least g(.) value for
expansion, and put all newly generated nodes into OPEN
– Nodes in OPEN are sorted by their g(.) values (in ascending order)
– Terminate if a node selected for expansion is a goal
• Called “Dijkstra's Algorithm” in the algorithms literature and
similar to “Branch and Bound Algorithm” in operations
research literature

35
 Uniform-Cost Search
GENERAL-SEARCH(problem, ENQUEUE-BY-PATH-COST)
exp. node nodes list CLOSED list
{S(0)}
S {A(1) B(5) C(8)} S
A {D(4) B(5) C(8) E(8) G(10)} 1
5 8
D {B(5) C(8) E(8) G(10)} A B C
B {C(8) E(8) G’(9) G(10)} 3 9
7 4 5
C {E(8) G’(9) G(10) G”(13)}
D E G G’ G”
E {G’(9) G(10) G”(13) }
G’ {G(10) G”(13) }
Solution path found is S B G <-- this G has cost 9, not 10
Number of nodes expanded (including goal node) = 7
36
 Uniform-Cost (UCS)
• Complete (if cost of each action is not infinitesimal)
– The total # of nodes n with g(n) <= g(goal) in the state space is finite
– If n’ is a child of n, then g(n’) = g(n) + c(n, n’) > g(n)
– Goal node will eventually be generated (put in OPEN) and selected for
expansion (and passes the goal test)
• Optimal/Admissible
– Admissibility depends on the goal test being applied when a node is
removed from the OPEN list, not when it's parent node is expanded and
the node is first generated (delayed goal testing)
– Multiple solution paths (following different backpointers)
– Each solution path that can be generated from an open node n will have
its path cost >= g(n)
– When the first goal node is selected for expansion (and passes the goal
test), its path cost is less than or equal to g(n) of every OPEN node n (and
solutions entailed by n)
• Exponential time and space complexity, O(b^d) where d is the
depth of the solution path of the least cost solution
37
 Depth-First Iterative Deepening (DFID)
• BF and DF both have exponential time complexity O(b^d)
BF is complete but has exponential space complexity
DF has linear space complexity but is incomplete
• Space is often a harder resource constraint than time
• Can we have an algorithm that
– Is complete
– Has linear space complexity, and
– Has time complexity of O(b^d)
• DFID by Korf in 1985 (17 years after A*)
First do DFS to depth 0 (i.e., treat start node as
having no successors), then, if no solution found,
do DFS to depth 1, etc.
until solution found do
DFS with depth bound c
c = c+1
38
 Depth-First Iterative Deepening (DFID)
• Complete (iteratively generate all nodes up to depth d)
• Optimal/Admissible if all operators have the same cost.
Otherwise, not optimal but does guarantee finding solution
of shortest length (like BF).
• Linear space complexity: O(bd), (like DF)
• Time complexity is a little worse than BFS or DFS because
nodes near the top of the search tree are generated multiple
times, but because almost all of the nodes are near the
bottom of a tree, the worst case time complexity is still
exponential, O(b^d)

39
 Depth-First Iterative Deepening
• If branching factor is b and solution is at depth d, then nodes
at depth d are generated once, nodes at depth d-1 are
generated twice, etc., and node at depth 1 is generated d
times.
Hence
total(d) = b^d + 2b^(d-1) + ... + db
<= b^d / (1 - 1/b)^2 = O(b^d).
– If b=4, then worst case is 1.78 * 4^d, I.e., 78% more nodes
searched than exist at depth d (in the worst case).

40
tota(d ) 1 b d  2 b d  1    (d  1) b 2  d b
b d (1  2 b  1    (d  1) b 2 d  d b1 d )
Let x b  1 , then
tota(d ) b d (1  2 x1    (d  1) x d  2  d x d  1 )
d
b d
(x  x2   xd  1  xd )
dx
d 1
d ( x  x )
b d
dx 1  x
d d x
b / * x d 1  1 when d is large since 1 / b  1* /
dx 1  x
1 (1  x)  x ( 1)
b d 2
. Therefore
(1  x)
tota(d ) b d /(1  x) 2 b d /(1  b  1 ) 2

41
Comparing Search Strategies

42
 When to use what

• Depth-First Search:
– Many solutions exist
– Know (or have a good estimate of) the depth of solution
• Breadth-First Search:
– Some solutions are known to be shallow
• Uniform-Cost Search:
– Actions have varying costs
– Least cost solution is the required
This is the only uninformed search that worries about costs.
• Iterative-Deepening Search:
– Space is limited and the shortest solution path is required

43
 Bi-directional search

• Alternate searching from the start state toward the goal and
from the goal state toward the start.
• Stop when the frontiers intersect.
• Works well only when there are unique start and goal states
and when actions are reversible
• Can lead to finding a solution more quickly (but watch out
for pathological situations.
44
 Avoiding Repeated States
• In increasing order of effectiveness in reducing size
of state space (and with increasing computational
costs.)
1. Do not return to the state you just came from.
2. Do not create paths with cycles in them.
3. Do not generate any state that was ever created
before.
• Net effect depends on ``loops'' in state-space.

45
 A State Space that Generates an
Exponentially Growing Search Space

46