Intersections

highway

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 Contents
• Intersections
 Introduction
 Design Considerations and Objectives
 Types
• Traffic Control methods

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 Introduction
• Intersection/Junction: it is a place where two
or more roads intersect or connect in the
horizontal projection.
• It may be 3, 4 or multi leg or rotary
intersections for at grade and grade separated
intersections and with or without canalizations
• Each highway radiating from an intersection or
forming part of it is an intersection leg.
• It provides passage of vehicles (crossing) from
one road to other one.
• During road design intersections have a special
importance
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 Introduction
• Intersections are most sensitive and most difficult part of the road
infrastructure;
• Too large amount of traffic accidents occur at junctions, and thus, from
a traffic safety aspect, junctions require attention and careful design.
• Good junction design should allow transition from one route to another
or through movement on the main route and intersecting route with
minimum delay and maximum safety.
• To accomplish this, the layout and operation of the junction should be
obvious to the driver, with good visibility between conflicting
movements.
 It usually determine the capacity of road.
 Impacts of inappropriately designed intersection:
 serious exposure to traffic congestion ;
limitation of transport performance of connected roads;
 source of dangerous accidents; and
 decrease road operation efficiency.

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 Type of Intersection
• According to mutual vertical location of crossing
roads two main types of intersections can be
defined:
a. At grade intersection (level crossing), where two
or more roads intersect or connect on the same
level;
i) T-Junctions.
ii) Cross-Junctions.
iii) Roundabouts: specific type of level crossings;
• b. grade separated intersections, where the
• crossing roads are connected in different levels .
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 Design Requirements
• The design of junctions must take account of
the following basic requirements:
i) Safety.
ii) Operational comfort.
iii) Capacity.
iv) Economy.
A junction is considered safe when it is visible,
comprehensible, and maneuverable.

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 Design Requirements
• These three requirements can generally be met by
complying with the following guidelines.
A. Visibility
• The junction should be sited so that the major road
approaches are readily visible. The angle of skew of
the junction should be no more than 20 degree from
perpendicular.
B. Comprehension
(i) The right of way should follow naturally and logically
from the junction layout.
(ii) The types of junctions used throughout the whole
road network should be similar.
(iii) The use of road signs is necessary. Road markings
and other road furniture may also be required. 7
 Design Requirements
c. Maneuverability
(i) All traffic lanes should be of adequate width and radius for
the appropriate vehicle turning characteristics. To
accommodate truck traffic, turn radii shall be a minimum of 15
meters.
(ii) The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by
road markings.
•The operation of the junction depends principally upon the
frequency of gaps that naturally occur between vehicles in the
main road flow. These gaps should be of sufficient duration to
permit vehicles from the minor road to merge with, or cross,
the major road flow.
•In consequence junctions are limited in capacity, but this
capacity may be optimized by, for example, canalization or the
separation of maneuvers.
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At-Grade Intersection

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Objective of intersection design

to facilitate the convenience,

ease, and comfort of people
traversing the intersection

while enhancing the movement

of motor vehicles, buses, trucks,
bicycles, and pedestrian.

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 Selection of Junction Type
The choice of an intersection type requires knowledge of :
 traffic demand,
 Intersection performance and
 Accident prediction.

Selection criteria are:

 capacity
 delay time
 Safety and
 physical layout factors

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Basic Advantages & Disadvantages of junctions

Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction).

 For low flows.
 Can cause long delays
 Requires sufficient stopping sight distance.
 Delays can be improved by signal installation.
Roundabouts
 For low to medium flows.
 Minimal delays at lower flows.
Shown to be safer than priority junctions.
 Requires attention to pedestrian movements &
accommodation of slow-moving traffic.
Grade-Separation
For high flows.
Results in minimal delays and Expensive. 12
 Selection of Junction Type
A guide for the selection of junction type based on different
combinations of traffic flows

Figure 4.1 Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows 13

• Figure 4.2: T-Junction Selection for Various Major and Minor Road
Traffic Flows 14
 At Grade Intersections
The basic types of at-grade intersections are:

a.Priority (T,Y or three-leg intersection)

 which consist of three approaches
b.Four-leg or cross intersections
 which consist of four approaches and
c.Multi-leg intersection
 which consists of five or more approaches

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 Priority junctions
a. T-Junctions
•The basic junction layout for rural roads is the T-
junction with the major road traffic having priority
over the minor road traffic.
•Applications of T-junctions include staggered T-
junction, which caters to cross-traffic.
•Staggered T-junctions are often the result of a
realignment of the minor route to improve the
angle of the skew of the crossing, as shown In
•The minimum distance between the T-junctions is
shown in Table 4-1. 16
 Priority junctions

• Figure 4-3: Staggered X-Junctions

The reason for this is that, in the latter case, a crossing
vehicle must re-enter from minor road by making a left
turn on the major roadway. In such cases, the inclusion of a
left-turning lane between the staggers should be
considered.
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 Priority junctions

• Table 4-1: Access Control

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 Priority junctions
B. Cross Junctions
•A cross junction has four legs and is present where two
highways cross each other. Overall principles of design, island
arrangements, use of turning lanes, and other parameters are
similar to those used in T-junctions.
•Experience in some countries has shown that converting
crossroads into roundabouts can reduce accident costs by
more than 80 percent.
•Where more complex junction layouts involving the
intersection of four or more roads are encountered, these
should be simplified by redesign to two junctions, or a
roundabout should be used.
•Having selected the basic junction layout, it is necessary to
adapt this basic layout in accordance with the following
principles to ensure that a safe, economic and geometrically
satisfactory design will be produced.
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 Priority junctions
i. Distance between Adjoining Junctions
•Level of service and driver perception is affected by
the spacing of junctions. In certain cases it may be
necessary to limit the junctions for reasons of safety
and serviceability.
•Table 4-1 gives a guide to the minimum spacing for
each road design standard, and should be used for
the design of new roads or when reviewing junction
layouts.

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 Priority junctions
ii. Visibility Splay
•At all junctions, adequate visibility splay must be provided.
•For conditions where the minor road yields to the major
road traffic, drivers of vehicles on the major road must be
able to see traffic on the minor road, and vice-versa, as
indicated in yield conditions in Figure 4-4 and Table 4-2.
•For conditions where the minor road stops before
proceeding to the major road, drivers must have a sight
distance for stop conditions as indicated in Figure 4-5 and
Table 4-3.
•If the minor road approach is on a curve, the stopping sight
distance for the minor road design speed must be
maintained, and a Stop Ahead sign must be employed.
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 Priority junctions

Figure 4-4: Visibility Splay for

“Yield” Conditions 22
 Priority junctions

• Table 4-2: Visibility Splay for “Yield”

Conditions

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 Priority junctions

• Figure 4-5: Visibility Splay for “Stop”

Conditions 24
 Priority junctions

Table 4-3: Visibility Splay for

“Stop” Conditions

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 Turning Lanes
• Turning Lanes
• Left and right turning lanes are of particular value on the
higher speed and volume roads when a vehicle slowing
down to turn and leave the major road may impede
following vehicles.
A . Right Turn Lane
• Right turn lanes, comprising a taper section and
deceleration lane, shall be provided for all trunk and link
road DC8, DC7, and DC6 junctions, and for other road
standards meeting any of the following conditions:
I. On four or more lane roads and divided highways
II. When the major road design speed is 100 km/hr or greater,
and the present year AADT on the major road is greater than
1500 AADT
III.When the present year AADT of the right-turning traffic is
greater than 750 AADT 26
 Turning Lanes
• A detail of the layout for the Right Turn Lane is
given in Figure 4-6.
• The length of the right turn lane including the
taper, measured as shown in the Figure, is related
to design speed as indicated in Table 4-4.
• The width of the major approach lane shall be the
same as the width of the traffic lanes.

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 Turning Lanes

• Figure 4-6: Layout for Right Turn Lane

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 Turning Lanes
• Table 4-4: Length of Right Turn Lane

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 Turning Lanes
B. Left Turn Lanes
•Warrants are the same as for a right-turning lane. A
separate lane for left turning traffic (traffic turning left from
the major road into the minor road) shall be provided for all
trunk and link road DC8, DC7, and DC6 junctions.
•Warrants for inclusion of left turn lanes for other road
standards are under any of the following conditions:
I. On four or more lane roads and divided highways.
II.When the major road design speed is 100 km/hr or greater,
and the present year AADT on the major road is greater than
1500 AADT.
III. When the present year AADT of the left-turning traffic is
greater than 750 AADT.
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 Turning Lanes
• A left turn lane consists of a taper section, a
deceleration section and a storage section.
• The minimum lengths for taper sections are as for
right turn lanes. A detail of the layout for a Left Turn
Lane for a single carriageway is given in Figure 4-7; the
configuration for dual carriageways is shown in Figure
4-8. The length of the left turn lane including the
taper, measured as shown in the Figure, is related to
design speed as indicated in Table 4-5.
• The length of the storage section is as indicated in
Table 4-6.
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Figure 4-7: Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Single Carriageway32
• Figure 4-8: Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Dual Carriageway 33
 Turning Lanes

• Table 4-5: Length of Left-Turn Lane

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 Turning Lanes
• Table 4-6: Lengths of Storage Sections for Left-
Turn Lanes

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 Turning Lanes
• Provision of left turn lanes can be made for both the major
and minor road. On single roadway roads where a left turn
lane is to be provided, a painted central reserve shall
always be used.
• In order to accommodate a left turn lane on a single
roadway road the roadway has to be widened to provide
the required width.
• The widening shall be designed so that the through lanes
are given smooth and optically pleasing alignments.
• The width of the through lanes at the junction shall be the
same as the approach lanes.
• The widening shall be provided by the deviation of both
through lanes from the centerline.
• This shall be achieved by introducing a taper of 100-metres
length at the beginning and ending of the widening.
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 Traffic Islands
• Traffic Islands
• A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes for the
control of vehicle movements and which may also be used as a
pedestrian refuge.
• Traffic islands may take the form of an area delineated by
barrier curbs or a pavement area marked by paint or a
combination of these.
• Islands are either elongated or triangular in shape and are
situated in areas not normally used as vehicle paths, the
dimensions depending upon the particular junction or bus stop
layout.
• The layout of an island is determined by the edges of the
through traffic lanes, turning vehicles and the lateral clearance
to the island sides.
• Island curbs should be offset a minimum of 0.3 meters from the
edge of through traffic lanes even if they are mountable.
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 Traffic Islands
• Traffic islands may be included in the design of
junctions for one or more of the following purposes:
i) Separation of conflicts.
ii) Control of angle of conflict.
iii) Reduction of excessive pavement areas.
iv) Regulation of traffic and indication of proper use of
junction.
v) Arrangements to favor a predominant turning
movement.
vi) Protection of pedestrians.
vii) Protection and storage of turning and crossing
vehicles.
viii) Location of traffic signs.
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 Roundabouts
• A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system
around a central island, entry to which is controlled
by markings and signs. Priority is given to traffic
already in the roundabout.
• Roundabouts provide high capacity and minimal
delay. Roundabouts have a good safety record.
i. Use of Roundabouts
• Near built-up areas and in village centers where the
through road may be crossed by local roads
carrying relatively heavy traffic, the use of
roundabouts may be considered.
• The following factors influence the choice of
selecting a roundabout over other forms of
intersection control:
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 Roundabouts
A. Safety
•Roundabouts should not be introduced on rural roads where the
design speeds of adjacent sections are 90 km/h or greater. For
design speeds approaching this value, consideration should be
given to the use of rumble strips and warning signs at the
approaches to warn the driver to anticipate the roundabout.
•Roundabouts are usually more difficult for pedestrians to cross
than normal junctions hence arrangements should be made to
provide adequate directions.
•B. Traffic Flow
•High proportions of turning movements favor roundabouts.
Roundabouts should generally be used if the minor road flow is
greater than one third of the major road flow.
•Roundabouts are also an advantage where peak flows are 50
percent greater than the average flows.

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 Roundabouts
C. Site Conditions
•Roundabouts generally take up more land than fully canalized junctions. The additional land
acquisition costs for roundabouts should be balanced against the increased capacity offered.
D. Driver Behavior
•Roundabouts regularize traffic flow and should reduce accidents as well as increase capacity.
E. The General Layout
•The general layout of a roundabout should provide for the following
I.Adequate entry widths.
II.Adequate circulation space compatible with entry widths.
III.Central islands of diameter sufficient only to give drivers guidance on the maneuvers
expected.
IV.Deflection of the traffic to the right on entry to promote movement and ensure low traffic
speeds.
V.A simple and clear layout.
VI.Suitable visibility at any entry of each adjacent entry.
VII.Entry and exit deflection angles and central island radius should prevent through speeds in
excess of 50 km/h. This is accomplished by maximizing the difference between the shortest
track a driver can take through the roundabout, versus the straight-line distance from an entry
to the opposite exit. No vehicle path should allow a vehicle to traverse the roundabout at a
radius greater than 100 meters

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• Figure 4.10: Roundabout Dimensions 42
 Roundabouts
• The following steps may be followed in laying out a trial geometry for a roundabout:
1. Select the general design criteria to be used.
2. Select the appropriate design vehicle for the site. This will generally be the DV4 for all
design standards.
3. Adopt a minimum design vehicle turning radius. This will generally be 15m radius.
4. Determine from traffic flows the number of lanes required on entry, exit and circulation
5. Identify the needs of pedestrians
6. Identify the location of controls such as right-of-way boundaries, utilities, access
requirements, and establish the space available
7. Select a trial central island diameter and determine the width needed of the circulating
carriageway
8. Draw the roundabout
9. Check that the size and shape is adequate to accommodate all intersecting legs with
sufficient separations for satisfactory traffic operations
10. Lay out the entrance/exit islands
11. Check the achievement of adequate deflection (Figure 4.10). Adjust as required.
12. Check site distances at approaches and exits.
13. Layout lane and pavement markings.
14. Layout lighting plan
15. Layout sign plan.
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Traffic Control methods at Grade intersections

The purpose of traffic control is to assign the right of

way to drivers, and thus to facilitate highway safety
by ensuring the orderly and predictable movement of
all traffic on highways,
Types of Intersection Control
 Yield Control
 Stop Control
 Roundabouts
 Signal Control

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Grade separations and Interchanges
Intersection at grade can be eliminated by the use of
grade-separation structures that permit the cross flow
of traffic at different levels without interruption.

Advantages of Grade Separated junction

 Freedom from cross interference

Time saving
 increase in safety

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 Grade separated
• The circumstances in which the use of a grade
separated junction is warranted are usually as
follows:
I. An at-grade junction has insufficient capacity
II. The junction is justified economically from the savings
in traffic delays and accident costs.
III.Grade separation is cheaper on account of
topography or on the grounds that expensive land
appropriation can be avoided by its construction.
IV.For operational reasons.
V.Where roads cross motorways. 46
Expressway

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 Grade separated
• In deciding on the location of a grade-separated
junction, the following factors should be taken
into account:
i) Trip length (travel distance).
ii) Size of urban areas.
iii) Predicted traffic volumes.
iv) Cost of junction.
v) Congestion control.
• It also depends upon the extent to which
important traffic movements should be given free
flow conditions. 48
 Grade separated
A. Choice of Scheme
•From a study of conflicting traffic movements, it will
generally be apparent which traffic streams must be
grade separated, leaving the other streams to be dealt
with by junctions at grade; the choice of these will
depend upon the capacities needed.
•The final choice of scheme must satisfy capacity
requirements, geometric standards, and operational
needs, and represent an economical design.
•In some instances the choice of a particular design will
be determined by the adoption of two-stage
construction, eg. constructing an at-grade junction first
and providing grade separation later. 49
 Grade separated
• Geometry
i. Design Speed
• The design speed for the through traffic movements shall be
determined in accordance with Stopping sight distances
appropriate for the design speed should always be provided.
• Where a dual carriageway intersects with another dual
carriageway, the junction between the facilities shall be effected
in such a manner that the loop roads do not entail any
significant reduction in the design speeds of the crossing
carriageways.
Ii. Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes
• The minimum standards to be applied for right turn
deceleration lanes are the same as for at-grade junctions.
• The total length of the acceleration lane (ie. not including the
merging taper) shall never be less than 150 meters or more than
400 meters.
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 Grade separated
Iii. Horizontal Curves and Super elevation
•The maximum super elevation for loops shall be e = 8%
which, at a design speed of 50 km/h, leads to a minimum
radius of 80 meters. Where smaller radii are unavoidable,
warning signs will be necessary.
•It is important where transitions occur from high to low
speeds that the curves should be compound or transitional,
the radius at any point being appropriate for the vehicle speed
at that point.
Iv. Vertical Curves
•To ensure reasonable standards of visibility, comfort and
appearance, vertical curves should be introduced at all
changes in gradient.
•Vertical curve lengths should be determined to provide safe
stopping sight distances.
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 Grade separated
v. Gradients
•Maximum gradient shall be 8%.
•For loops, an up gradient of 5% and a down gradient
of 7% should normally be regarded as maximal.
Vi. Widths of Loops
•The minimum carriageway width for loops on straight
sections and horizontal radii greater than 150m shall
be 4.0m with shoulders of 1.5 meters on the near side
and 1.0 meter on the far side (widened by 0.5 meter
where a guardrail is required). For loops on radii of 150
meters or less, the carriageway width shall be in
accordance with Table 4.5
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 Grade separated
Table 4.5: Widths for Loops

vii. Capacity
Grade-separated junctions are generally designed using
traffic volumes given in terms of Daily High Volume
(DHV) rather than Annual Average Daily Traffic
(AADTs). A detailed traffic study and analysis can be
made to determine these values. In the absence of such a
study, it can be assumed that the DHV in an urban area is
10% of AADT. It is also a good estimate of vehicles per
hour. The capacity of each traffic lane, in DHV, is usually
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 Grade separated
viii. Minimum Spacing
•In suburban zones, therefore, it is necessary to establish a
minimum distance between successive grade-separated
junctions.
•The recommended minimum distance is 2.0km.
Design Principles
•Special design principles apply to grade separated junctions
and must be considered when comparing the characteristics
of alternative designs. The main principles are described
below:
1. The high speeds normally met with on roads where grade
separation is required and the low design speeds of ancillary
roads make it necessary to pay particular attention to the
transitions between high and low speed.
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 Grade separated
2. Weaving between lanes on the main roadway within the
interchange is undesirable and can be avoided by arranging for
diverging points to precede merging points.
3. On a road with a large number of grade-separated
junctions, a consistent design speed is desirable for loops. This
speed shall be not less then 65% of the speed of the adjoining
major road.
4. As a general rule, left-turning movements that are grade
separated should be made through a right-hand loop.
5. Unexpected prohibited traffic movements, especially where
traffic is light, are difficult to enforce and cause danger. If
possible the geometric layout should be designed to make
prohibited movements difficult, eg. on one-way loops entry
contrary to the one way movement can be restricted by the
use of suitably shaped traffic islands to supplement the traffic
signs.
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