Week 6

Research Methodology
and Professional Ethics

Dr. Sadia Basar

 Topics

1.Motivation in Research
2.Types of Research
1. Motivation in Research
 Motivation in Research

The possible motives for doing research may be either

one or more of the following:

• Desire to get a research degree along with its

consequential benefits
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e. concern over practical problems
initiates research

• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative

work

• Desire to be of service to society

• Desire to get respectability

 Motivation in Research

1. Curiosity and Passion:

Genuine interest and curiosity about a specific
topic or subject area can be a powerful
motivator. Researchers driven by passion are
more likely to invest time and effort into
exploring and understanding their chosen area of
study.

2. Intellectual Challenge:
The desire to solve complex problems, answer
unanswered questions, or contribute new
knowledge to the field can be a strong motivator.
Researchers often find motivation in the
intellectual challenges presented by their
research.
 Motivation in Research

3. Impact and Contribution:

The prospect of making a meaningful impact
on society, the academic community, or a
particular field of study can be a powerful
motivator. Knowing that their work can influence
policy, improve lives, or advance knowledge can
drive researchers.

4. Personal and Professional Growth:

Research offers opportunities for personal and
professional growth, including skill development,
critical thinking, analytical abilities, and project
management. The desire to enhance one's
capabilities and expertise can be a motivating
factor.
 Motivation in Research

5. Recognition and Acknowledgment:

The desire for recognition and
acknowledgment for one's work and
contributions within the research community can
motivate researchers to strive for excellence in
their studies.

6. Career Goals and Advancement:

Research achievements can significantly
impact career growth and opportunities. Aspiring
to reach specific career goals, secure funding,
attain tenure, or gain recognition within a
profession can drive researchers to excel in their
research.
 Motivation in Research

7. Intrinsic Rewards:
Intrinsic rewards, such as a sense of
accomplishment, personal satisfaction, and joy
from the research process itself, can be powerful
motivators. Enjoying the journey of discovery
and learning can fuel sustained motivation.

8. Extrinsic Rewards:
External rewards, such as grants, awards,
scholarships, or career advancements, can
motivate researchers. These rewards often serve
as tangible indicators of success and recognition.
 Motivation in Research

9. Collaboration and Networking:

The opportunity to collaborate with
likeminded individuals, share ideas, and work as
part of a team can motivate researchers.
Collaborative efforts often bring new
perspectives and insights, enhancing motivation.

10. Commitment to a Cause or Purpose:

Researchers driven by a sense of commitment
to a particular cause, belief, or principle are
motivated by the potential to contribute
positively to that cause through their research.
 Motivation in Research

11. Peer Influence and Pressure:

The influence and expectations of peers,
mentors, or advisors can serve as motivators,
encouraging researchers to meet standards,
excel, and meet their academic or professional
obligations.
2. Types of Research
 APPLIED RESEARCH

Applied research refers to scientific study and research that

seeks to solve practical problems. Applied research is used to
find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop
innovative technologies, rather than to acquire knowledge for
knowledge's sake.

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

• Improve agricultural crop production

• Treat or cure a specific disease
• Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes
of transportation
 APPLIED VS FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH
• Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization,
whereas

• Fundamental research is mainly concerned with

generalizations and with the formulation of a theory
• A study assessing whether males or females are more likely to
suffered from depression.

• Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to

pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research

• Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior carried

on with a view to make generalizations about human behavior,
are also examples of fundamental research

• But research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution)

facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research.
 BASIC RESEARCH

Basic (aka fundamental or pure ) research is driven by a

scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific question. The
main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create
or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to
the discoveries that result from basic research.

For example, basic science investigations probe for answers

to questions such as:

• How did the universe begin?

• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
• How to determine the factors that contribute to stress
levels.
 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

Correlational research refers to the systematic investigation or

statistical study of relationships among two or more variables.

It Seeks to establish a relation/association/correlation

between two or more variables

For example, to test the hypothesis “ Listening to Quran

recitation lowers blood pressure levels” there are 2 ways of
conducting research
• Experimental – group samples and make one group listen
to Quran recitation and then compare the bp levels
• Survey – ask people how they feel ? How often they listen?
And then compare
 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

When two variables correlate and might actually

have a causal relationship, but it’s impossible to
conclude which variable causes changes in the
other.

For example, vitamin D levels are correlated

with depression, but it’s not clear whether low
vitamin D causes depression, or whether
depression causes reduced vitamin D intake.
 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

Advantages:

1)Can collect much information from many subjects at

one time.
2) Can study a wide range of variables and their
interrelations.
3)Study variables that are not easily produced in the
laboratory.

Disadvantages:

1) Correlation does not indicate causation( cause and

effect).
2) Problems with self-report method .
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive research refers to research that provides an

accurate portrayal of characteristics of a particular individual,
situation, or group. Descriptive research, also known
as statistical research.

These studies are a means of discovering new meaning,

describing what exists, determining the frequency with which
something occurs, and categorizing information.

In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be

counted and studied, which has an impact of the lives of the
people it deals with.

For example,
• finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of
a town. The reader of the research will know what to do to
prevent that disease thus, more people will live a healthy life.
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Advantages:

• It is less expensive and time consuming than quantitative

experiments;
• Collects a large amount of notes for detailed studying;
• As it is used to describe and not make any conclusions it is
to start the research with it;

Disadvantages

• Descriptive research requires more skills.

• Does not identify cause behind a phenomenon
• Response rate is low in this research.
• Results of this research can change over the period of
time.
 DESCRIPTIVE VS ANALYTICAL RESEARCH
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds.

• The major purpose of descriptive research is

description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present.

• The methods of research utilized in descriptive

research are survey methods of all kinds,
including comparative and correlational
methods.

• In analytical research, on the other hand, the

researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
 DESCRIPTIVE VS ANALYTICAL RESEARCH
• Descriptive research focuses on "what" is
happening, whereas analytical research explores
"why" it happens. Descriptive employs
observation and surveys; analytical uses
statistical, mathematical, or computational
techniques.
• Descriptive aims to identify patterns or trends,
while analytical aims to establish causation.
 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

Ethnographic research refer to the study of people in their

own environment through the use of methods such as
participant observation and face-to-face interviewing.

• Ethnography is a qualitative method for collecting

data often used in the social and behavioral sciences.
Data are collected through observations and
interviews, which are then used to draw conclusions
about how societies and individuals function.

• Data collection is often done through participant

observation, interviews, questionnaires, etc.

• Example: Researchers observing customers visiting a

supermarket and interacting with the employees.
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled

investigation for the purpose of predicting and controlling
phenomena and examining probability and causality among
selected variables.

Advantages

• Best establishes cause-and-effect relationships

Disadvantages

• Artificiality

• Feasibility

• Unethical
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

The simplest experimental design includes two variables and two

groups of participants.

The two variables(Independent versus Dependent variables).

• The IV is the predictor variable whereas the DV is the outcome

variable.
• Researchers manipulate and control the IV to study it's effect on
the DV.

The two groups of participants (Control versus Experimental

group).
• Before beginning the experiment, the researcher (randomly)
assigns his/her sample to two different groups: the control
group and the experimental (treatment group or clinical group).
• The control group receives no manipulation of the IV (no
treatment), whereas the experimental group receives the
manipulation of the IV
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Examples of experimental research include

drug trials, psychology experiments, and
studies testing new teaching methods. These
experiments involve manipulating variables
and comparing outcomes to establish causal
relationships.
 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Exploratory research is a type of research conducted for a

problem that has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research
helps determine the best research design, data collection method
and selection of subjects.

• Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the

population at large.

• Exploratory research can be quite informal, relying

on secondary research such as reviewing available literature
and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal
discussions with consumers, employees, management or
competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth
interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot
studies.

Example: A study in which the goal is to determine the best way

to treat a new type of cancer.
 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Experimental research is completed in a controlled

environment. Exploratory research is a study that seeks to
answer a question or address a phenomenon.

Examples of exploratory research:

Brain- storming sessions, interviews with experts, and posting
a short survey to a social networking website.
 GROUNDED THEORY RESEARCH
Grounded theory research is a research approach designed to
discover what problems exist in a given social environment and
how the persons involved handle them; it involves formulation,
testing, and reformulation of propositions until a theory is
developed.

Grounded theory is a qualitative method that enables you to

discover new theories based on the analysis of real world data.

Four stages:
1. Codes-Identifying anchors that allow the key points of the data
to be gathered
2. Concepts-Collections of codes of similar content that allows
the
data to be grouped
3. Categories-Broad groups of similar concepts that are used to
generate a theory
4. Theory-A collection of explanations that explain the subject of
the research (hypotheses)
 Grounded theory vs ethnography

Grounded theory methods move the research and the

researcher toward theory development. In contrast,
ethnography relies on developing a full description of a society
or group of people and, thus, provides the details of their
everyday life.

Grounded theory Examples:

1. The Impact of Technology on Social Interactions
2. The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
3. The Impact of Poverty on Health
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Historical research is research involving analysis of events
that occurred in the remote or recent past

Application
• Historical research can show patterns that occurred in the past
and over time which can help us to see where we came from
and what kinds of solutions we have used in the past.
• Understanding this can add perspective on how we examine
current events and educational practices.

The steps involved in the conduct of historical research

Here are the five steps:
1.Identification of the research topic and formulation of the
research problem or question.
2. Data collection or literature review
3. Evaluation of materials
4. Data synthesis
5. Report preparation or preparation of the narrative
exposition
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Historical research gives a social scientist a better context for

making realistic decisions.

Strengths
• Provides a comprehensive picture of historical trends
• Uses existing information
• Provides evidence of on-going trends and problems

Limitations
• Time-consuming
• Resources may be hard to locate
• Resources may be conflicting
• May not identify cause of a problem
• Information may be incomplete, obsolete, inconclusive, or
inaccurate
• Data restricted to what already exists
 PHENOMENLOGICAL RESEARCH
Phenomenology is a philosophy of experience. For
phenomenology the ultimate source of all meaning and value is the
lived experience of human beings.
Example: A study of the thoughts and experiences of family
members waiting for a family member who is undergoing major
surgery.
• Phenomenology is concerned with the study of experience from
the perspective of the individual, ‘connecting’ and usual ways of
perceiving.
• They are based in a paradigm of personal knowledge and
subjectivity, and emphasise the importance of personal
perspective and interpretation.
• As such they are powerful for understanding subjective
experience, gaining insights into people’s motivations and
actions, and cutting through the clutter of taken-for-granted
assumptions and conventional wisdom.
Example: Pilot Training
On a broader perspective, all researches
can be classified into two groups:

• Qualitative Research

• Quantitative Research
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is research dealing with phenomena that are

difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically, such as beliefs,
knowledge, and, attributes.

Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth

understanding of human behaviour and the reasons that
govern such behaviour. The qualitative method investigates
the why and how of decision making, not just what, where,
when.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Advantages
• It enables more complex aspects of a persons experience to
be studied
• Fewer restriction or assumptions are placed on the data to
be collected.
• Not everything can be quantified, or quantified easily,
Individuals can be studied in more depth
• Good for exploratory research and hypothesis
generation
• The participants are able to provide data in their own words
and in their own way

Disadvantages
• It is more difficult to determine the validity and
reliability of linguistic data
• there is more subjectivity involved in analysing the data.
• “Data overload” – open-ended questions can sometimes
create lots of data, which can take along time to analyse!
• Time consuming
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical
investigation of any phenomena via statistical, mathematical or
computational techniques. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop and employ mathematical
models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena

Quantitative research is generally made using scientific

methods, which can include:

• The generation of models, theories and hypotheses

• The development of instruments and methods for

measurement

• Experimental control and manipulation of

variables

• Collection of empirical data

• Modelling and analysis of data

• Evaluation of results
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Advantages
• Quantitative research allows the researcher to measure and
analyse data.
• The researcher is more objective about the findings of the
research.
• Quantitative research can be used to test hypotheses in
experiments because of its ability to measure data using
statistics.

Disadvantages
• The main disadvantage of quantitative research is
the context of the study or experiment is ignored.
• Quantitative research does not study things in a natural
setting or discuss the meaning things have for different
people.
• A large sample of the population must be studied for more
accurate results
QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount

• It is applicable to phenomena that can be

expressed in terms of quantity

• Qualitative research, on the other hand, is

concerned with qualitative phenomenon,
i.e. phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind.
CONCEPTUAL VS EMPERICAL RESEARCH

• Conceptual research is that related to

some abstract idea(s) or theory
• It is generally used by philosophers
and thinkers to develop new concepts
or to reinterpret existing ones.
• On the other hand, empirical research
relies on experience or observation
alone, often without due regard for
system and theory.
• It is data-based research, coming up
with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or
experiment.
Any Question ?