Week 4

Research Methodology and Professional Ethics

Dr. Sadia Basar

 Topics
1. Thinking like a researcher
2. Understanding Concepts
3. Constructs
4. Variables, and Definitions
1. Thinking like a researcher
 Thinking like a researcher

• Thinking like a researcher involves adopting a systematic and critical approach to exploring
and understanding the world. Whether you are conducting scientific research, academic
inquiry, or any other form of investigation, the following principles can guide your thinking:

• 1. Curiosity: Cultivate a deep sense of curiosity about the world around you. Ask
questions about phenomena, problems, or concepts that enhance your interest. Curiosity is
the driving force behind research.

• 2. Question Formulation: Develop the skill of formulating clear and focused research
questions. Your questions should be specific, researchable, and relevant to the topic you want
to investigate.
 Thinking like a researcher

• 3. Background Research: Before diving into your research, conduct a thorough

literature review to understand what is already known about your topic. This will help you
build on existing knowledge and identify gaps in the literature.

• 4. Hypothesis or Thesis: Formulate a hypothesis (in scientific research) or a thesis

statement (in academic research) that represents your educated guess or central argument.
This provides a clear direction for your research.

• 5. Methodology: Design a research methodology or approach that allows you to collect

and analyze data effectively. Consider the research methods, tools, and techniques that best
suit your research question.
 Thinking like a researcher
• 6. Data Collection: Gather data or evidence systematically. Ensure that your data
collection process is reliable and unbiased. Keep detailed records of your methods.

• 7. Critical Thinking: Analyze and interpret your data critically. Be open to unexpected
findings and consider alternative explanations. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of
your research methods.

• 8. Ethical Considerations: Adhere to ethical principles and guidelines in your

research, especially when involving human subjects. Respect privacy, obtain informed
consent, and avoid any form of harm.

• 9. Data Management: Organize and store your data securely. Maintain good data
management practices, including proper labeling, backup, and version control.
 Thinking like a researcher
• 10. Data Analysis: Apply appropriate statistical or analytical techniques to your data.
Ensure that your analysis aligns with your research objectives and can provide meaningful
insights.

• 11. Peer Review: Seek feedback and critique from peers or experts in your field. Peer
review helps identify flaws, biases, or overlooked aspects of your research.

• 12. Communication: Effectively communicate your research findings through writing,

presentations, or other means relevant to your field. Make your work accessible to others and
explain its significance.

• 13. Adaptability: Be prepared to adjust your research plan based on new information or
unexpected challenges. Flexibility is crucial in the research process.
 Thinking like a researcher

• 14. Time Management: Manage your time efficiently to meet deadlines and milestones. Research
often requires long-term commitment and persistence.

• 15. Collaboration: Collaborate with other researchers, when appropriate. Collaborative efforts can
bring diverse perspectives and expertise to your research.

• 16. Continuous Learning: Stay up-to-date with the latest developments in your field. Attend
conferences, workshops, and read current literature to expand your knowledge.
 Thinking like a researcher

• 17. Patience: Understand that research can be a slow and iterative process. Not all
experiments or studies will yield immediate results, and setbacks are common.

• 18. Skepticism: Approach your own work with a healthy dose of skepticism. Challenge your
assumptions and conclusions to ensure the highest level of accuracy.

• Thinking like a researcher is not limited to academic or scientific fields. It's a mindset that
encourages systematic inquiry and critical thinking in various aspects of life, fostering a
deeper understanding of the world and the ability to find evidence-based solutions to
complex problems.
2. Understanding Concepts
 Understanding Concepts
• Understanding the fundamental concepts of research methodology is
crucial for conducting effective research. Here, I'll explain some key
concepts in research methodology:

• 1. Research Design: Research design is the plan or structure that guides

your research. It outlines how you will collect and analyze data to answer
your research questions. Common research designs include experimental,
observational, cross-sectional, longitudinal, and case study designs.

• 2. Research Question: A research question is a clear, concise, and

specific query that your research aims to answer. It sets the direction for
your study and defines its scope.
 Understanding Concepts
• 3. Hypothesis: In experimental research, a hypothesis is a testable
statement that predicts a relationship between variables. It serves as the
basis for designing experiments and making predictions.

• 4. Variables: Variables are characteristics or factors that can vary and

be measured in a research study. Independent variables are used to observe
their effects on dependent variables.

• 5. Sampling: Sampling involves selecting a subset of individuals or

elements from a larger population to study. Various sampling methods, such
as random, stratified, and convenience sampling, can be used.
 Understanding Concepts
• 6. Data Collection: Data collection methods refer to the techniques and
tools used to gather information. This can include surveys, interviews,
observations, experiments, and document analysis.

• 7. Data Analysis: Data analysis involves processing and interpreting

collected data to draw meaningful conclusions. It may involve statistical analysis,
content analysis, or qualitative coding, depending on the research approach.

• 8. Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which a study accurately measures

or assesses what it intends to. Types of validity include internal validity (whether
the study's design supports its conclusions) and external validity (the
generalizability of findings to other settings or populations).
 Understanding Concepts
• 9. Reliability: Reliability relates to the consistency and stability of
research measurements or observations. Reliable measurements produce
consistent results when used repeatedly.

• 10. Bias: Bias refers to systematic errors or distortions in research

findings due to factors like sampling, measurement, or researcher
subjectivity. Minimizing bias is critical for valid research.

• 11. Ethics: Research ethics encompass principles and guidelines that

ensure the ethical treatment of research participants. This includes obtaining
informed consent, protecting participants' privacy, and minimizing harm.
 Understanding Concepts
• 12. Literature Review: A literature review involves a comprehensive
examination of existing research on a particular topic. It helps identify gaps
in knowledge and informs the research's context and rationale.

• 13. Peer Review: Peer review is the evaluation of research by experts

in the field to ensure its quality, validity, and reliability before publication.

• 14. Research Proposal: A research proposal is a document that

outlines the purpose, objectives, methods, and expected outcomes of a
research project. It is often a prerequisite for securing funding and
institutional approval.
 Understanding Concepts
• 15. Data Visualization: Data visualization techniques, such as
charts and graphs, are used to present research findings visually, making
them easier to understand and interpret.

• 16. Mixed-Methods Research: This approach combines both

qualitative and quantitative research methods to provide a more
comprehensive understanding of a research topic.

• 17. Action Research: Action research involves conducting

research in real-world settings to address practical problems and produce
solutions collaboratively with stakeholders.
 Understanding Concepts
• 18. Longitudinal Studies: Longitudinal studies track the same individuals or
groups over an extended period to observe changes or trends over time.

• 19. Cross-Sectional Studies: Cross-sectional studies collect data from

different individuals or groups at a single point in time to compare characteristics or
variables.

• 20. Research Paradigm: A research paradigm represents the underlying

philosophical assumptions and approaches that guide a researcher's work.

• Understanding these concepts will provide you with a strong foundation for conducting
research and critically evaluating the research of others. The application of these concepts
will vary depending on your research goals, discipline, and methodology.
3. Constructs
 Constructs
• Constructs are abstract concepts/main theme or ideas that researchers use
to describe and explain phenomena in their studies. These concepts are
essential in various fields of research, including psychology, sociology,
education, and the social sciences. Constructs are not directly observable
but are inferred from observable behaviors, responses, or measurements.
Understanding constructs is crucial for developing research hypotheses,
designing experiments, and measuring variables accurately. Here's a
more detailed explanation of constructs:

• 1. Definition: Constructs are theoretical concepts that represent a

specific idea or phenomenon. They are defined in precise and clear terms
to ensure consistency in research.
 Constructs
• 2. Examples: Some examples of constructs include intelligence, happiness, self-
esteem, and motivation. These are complex concepts that are not directly measurable
but are often used in research to understand human behavior and experiences.

• 3. Operationalization: To study constructs, researchers need to operationalize

them. Operationalization involves defining how a construct will be measured or
observed in a concrete and measurable way. For example, intelligence might be
operationalized using IQ tests, happiness through self-report questionnaires, and self-
esteem through a series of statements with which participants agree or disagree.

• 4. Indicators: Constructs are often associated with specific indicators or variables

that help researchers measure or assess them. For example, to measure the construct of
"academic success," researchers might use indicators like GPA, test scores, or
graduation rates.
 Constructs
• 5. Multidimensionality: Many constructs are multidimensional, meaning they
have several aspects or dimensions. For example, the construct of "personality" can
be broken down into dimensions like extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness.

• 6. Theoretical Framework: Constructs are typically embedded within a

theoretical framework or model that helps researchers understand their relationships
with other constructs. This framework provides a structure for developing research
questions and hypotheses.

• 7. Validity and Reliability: Ensuring the validity and reliability of measures

used to assess constructs is essential. Validity refers to the extent to which a measure
accurately captures the construct of interest, while reliability refers to the consistency
of measurement.
 Constructs

• 8. Contextual Sensitivity: The meaning of a construct can vary

in different contexts and cultures. Researchers must consider the
cultural and contextual sensitivity of constructs when designing
studies and interpreting results.

• 9. Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches: Constructs

can be studied using both quantitative and qualitative research
methods. Quantitative methods involve numerical measurements,
while qualitative methods involve exploring the meanings and
experiences associated with constructs.
 Constructs
• 10. Construct Validity: Construct validity concerns the extent to
which your test or measure accurately assesses what it's supposed to
• 11. Criterion Validity: criterion validity is the degree to which a
test can predictively (in the future) or concurrently (in the present)
measure something.
• In summary, constructs are essential in research for conceptualizing,
defining, and studying abstract ideas and phenomena. Researchers use
operationalization and measurement to make these constructs tangible
and subject to empirical investigation. Understanding constructs and
their properties is fundamental to the research process and contributes
to the development of valid and reliable research studies.
4. Variables, and Definitions
 Variables, and Definitions
• Variables and definitions are fundamental concepts in research, and they play
a crucial role in the design, data collection, and analysis of research studies.
Let's explore these concepts in more detail:

• Variables:
• Variables are characteristics, attributes, or factors that can vary and are
subject to measurement or observation in a research study. They are essential
for defining and quantifying aspects of the research question or hypothesis.
Variables can be classified into different types:
 Types of Variables
• 1. Independent Variables (IV): These are the factors or conditions that
researchers manipulate or control to observe their effects on other variables.
The independent variable is often denoted as "X" in research. For example, in
a study examining the impact of exercise on weight loss, the amount of
exercise (e.g., hours per week) is the independent variable.

• 2. Dependent Variables (DV): Dependent variables are the outcomes or

responses that researchers measure to assess the effects of the independent
variable(s). The dependent variable is often denoted as "Y" in research. In the
exercise and weight loss study, weight loss (e.g., in pounds) is the dependent
variable.
 Types of Variables
• 3. Control Variables: Control variables are factors that researchers intentionally hold
constant or control for to eliminate their potential influence on the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. Controlling for these variables helps ensure that the
observed effects are due to the independent variable(s). For example, in the exercise and
weight loss study, factors like age, gender, and diet could be control variables.

• 4. Mediating Variables: Mediating variables explain the process or mechanism through

which the independent variable affects the dependent variable. They help researchers
understand the "why" and "how" behind observed relationships. Mediating variables are often
identified through mediation analysis.

• 5. Moderating Variables: Moderating variables influence the strength or direction of the

relationship between the independent and dependent variables. They identify conditions under
which the relationship between variables varies. Moderation analysis is used to explore these
effects. (Cause and effect relationship)
 Definitions
• Definitions are clear and precise explanations or descriptions of terms,
concepts, or variables used in research. Effective definitions are critical for
ensuring that researchers and readers have a common understanding of the
key elements of a study. Here are some key points regarding definitions:

• 1. Conceptual Definitions: Conceptual definitions provide an

abstract or theoretical explanation of a term or concept. They clarify the
meaning and significance of the concept within the context of the research.
Conceptual definitions help researchers develop a theoretical framework.
 Definitions
• 2. Operational Definitions: Operational definitions describe how a concept or
variable will be measured or observed in the research study. They provide specific and
concrete guidelines for data collection. Operational definitions ensure that the research
is conducted consistently and that the variables are quantified or assessed in a
standardized way.

• 3. Lexical Definitions: Lexical definitions rely on established dictionary or

language-based meanings of terms. These definitions are useful for common concepts
but may need to be adapted or refined for research purposes.

• 4. Stipulative Definitions: Stipulative definitions are created or modified

specifically for a particular research study. Researchers may introduce new terms or
provide unique interpretations of existing terms based on their research objectives.
 Definitions
• 5. Precise Language: Definitions should use precise and unambiguous
language to avoid confusion and misinterpretation. Clear definitions enhance the
validity and reliability of research findings.

• 6. Consistency: Definitions should be consistent throughout the research study,

from the research proposal to data analysis and reporting. This ensures that the
concepts are consistently applied and measured.

• In summary, variables are key elements of a research study that can vary and are
subject to measurement or observation, while definitions are clear explanations of
terms, concepts, or variables that guide the research process. Clear and precise
definitions help researchers and readers understand and interpret research findings
accurately.
Any Question ?