CHAPTER 7

Movements

OUTLINE

Muscles
Neural control of muscles
Motor systems of the brain
Movement disorders
 CHAPTER 7
Movements

OUTLINE

Muscles
Neural control of muscles
Motor systems of the brain
Movement disorders
 Muscles
Types of muscle
Muscle is a soft tissue found in most animals. There are two types of muscle based
on their structure:
• striated (organized in sarcomere = structural unit of striated muscle)
• smooth

• the walls of blood vessels

• lymphatic vessels
• the urinary bladder
• reproductive tracts
• gastrointestinal tract
Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle
• respiratory tract
(multinucleated) (one nucleus/cell)
• iris of the eye
 Muscles
Types of muscle
There are two types of muscle based on their function/type of contraction:

• voluntary (skeletal muscles contract upon command)

• Involuntary (cardiac and smooth muscles contract without conscious thoughts)
 Muscles
Muscle anatomy and contraction
(skeletal muscles)

Muscle fibers: individual muscle cell formed of myofibrils.

Myofibrils
- Long strands of protein that run the
length of the muscle
- Sarcomere: single segment of myofibril
- Z line: boundary of each sarcomere
- Thin filaments are made of actin (blue)
- Thick filaments are made of myosin (red)
 Muscles
Muscle anatomy and contraction
(skeletal muscles)
Fiber types and speed

Type I myosin filament Type IIa and IIb myosin filaments

 Muscles
Muscle anatomy and contraction
(skeletal muscles)
Fiber types and speed
 Muscles
Muscle anatomy and contraction
(skeletal muscles)

Muscle fibers and neuromuscular junction

Overall structure of a muscle cell

and neuromuscular junction: Neuromuscular junction:
1. Axon 1. Presynaptic terminal
2. Neuromuscular junction 2. Sarcolemma
3. Muscle fiber 3. Synaptic vesicle
4. Myofibril 4. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
5. Mitochondrion
 Muscles
Muscle anatomy and contraction
(skeletal muscles)

Each action potential produces single contraction of muscle fiber, known as a twitch.
 Muscles
Muscle anatomy and contraction
(skeletal muscles)

Muscle fibers: express nicotinic Acetylcholine receptors.

 Muscles
Muscle anatomy and contraction
(skeletal muscles)

Local
depolarization
 Muscles
Muscle anatomy and contraction
(skeletal muscles)

Actin Troponin

Myosin tropomyosin

In the resting muscle, troponin prevents

interactions between actin and myosin by
hiding the myosin-binding sites.

Troponin needs Ca2+ to allow for actin and

myosin to interact.
 Muscles
Muscle anatomy and contraction
(skeletal muscles)

Action potential leads to internal release of

Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into
the muscle fiber;

Calcium binds with troponin and allows actin

and myosin to interact.
sarcoplasmic
reticulum (SR)
 Muscles
Muscle anatomy and contraction
(skeletal muscles)
 Muscles
Muscle anatomy and contraction
(skeletal muscles)
Interaction of muscles at a joint
Muscles contract.
1 muscle will either straighten or bend a joint
You need a pair of muscle to do both movements: antagonistic pairs of
muscles allow movement
 CHAPTER 7
Movements

OUTLINE

Muscles
Neural control of muscles
Motor systems of the brain
Movement disorders
 Muscles
Neural control of muscles

Skeletal muscle contraction is controlled by

motor neurons in the spinal cord or in nuclei of
the cranial nerves

Spinal motor neurons = alpha motor neurons

 Muscles
Neural control of muscles

A motor unit consists of an alpha

motor neuron and all the muscle
fibers it controls
 Muscles
Neural control of muscles

Size of motor unit corresponds to its

function
Slow twitch fibers:
neurons have small cell bodies,
innervate few fibers and produce little
force
Fast twitch fibers:
neurons have larger cell bodies,
innervate more fibers and produce
greater force
 Muscles
Neural control of muscles

From

1 action potential = 1 twitch

To

Muscular movements of
different forces and
duration
 Muscles
Neural control of muscles
Control of the force of our movement:
1- varying the firing rate of motor neurons

Summative effect on the intracellular calcium concentration = facilitation of the

release of more troponin from actin to allow more contraction.
 Muscles
Neural control of muscles
Control of the force of our movement:
2- recruitment: gradual activation of more motor units

• Activation of 1 motor neuron = weak

but distributed muscle contraction.
• Activation of more motor neurons =
more muscle fibers being activated,
and therefore a stronger muscle
contraction
 Muscles
Neural control of muscles
Control of Alpha motor neurons:

How is muscle movement sensed and controlled?

Alpha motor neurons receive input from:

• neurons from muscle spindles and Golgi tendons
organs
• neurons of the brainstem and motor cortex
• spinal interneurons
 Muscles
Muscles spindles

Muscle spindles = stretch receptors

that detect changes in the length
of the muscle.

They convey length information to

the central nervous system via
sensory neurons

They are involved in the stretch

shortening reflex
Alpha motor neuron innervates
muscle at neuromuscular
junctions
Extrafusal fibers are outside of
the spindle and responsible for
contracting the muscle

Gamma motor neuron innervates

the muscle spindle
Spindles contain intrafusal fibers
and Ia sensory fibers; relay
stretch information
This impulse tells the muscle to contract with greater force in order to
decrease the speed at which the muscle is being stretched.

This response is primarily protective, to avoid the potential damage

that could occur when a muscle is rapidly stretched beyond its limit.

Very rapid response (remains at the level of the spinal cord) =

involuntary spinal cord reflex
 Muscles
Golgi tendon organs
Muscle contraction, or force, is controlled by the Golgi tendon
organs
 Muscles
Neural control of muscles

Type of Sensory Fiber Role on motor Function

information neurons

Muscle spindles Length Ia sensory fiber Activation of α- Stretch reflex:

motor neurons contraction of
Activation of ϒ muscle
motor neurons

Golgi tendon Force Ib sensory fiber Inhibition of α- Relaxation

motor neurons
 CHAPTER 7
Movements

OUTLINE

Muscles
Neural control of muscles
Motor systems of the brain
Movement disorders
 Motor system of the brain
Reflex Control of Movement

Even simplest voluntary movements are governed by extremely

complex motor controls from the brain and/or the spine

A reflex is:

An involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in

response to a stimulus: spinal control without high conscious
control.
 Motor system of the brain
Reflex Control of Movement

In the adult nervous system, there are 2 types of reflexes:

• Monosynaptic reflex
• Polysynaptic reflex
 Motor system of the brain
Reflex Control of Movement

All reflexes have one thing in common: the reflex arc is a neural
pathway that controls an action reflex.

5 basic components:
Receptors
Afferent neuron
Integrating center
Efferent neuron
Effector
 Motor system of the brain
Reflex Control of Movement
Monosynaptic reflex: reflex that requires the action of only ONE
synapse between sensory and motor neurons (e.g. patellar tendon
reflex)
 Motor system of the brain
Reflex Control of Movement

Patellar tendon reflex

 Motor system of the brain
Reflex Control of Movement

Polysynaptic reflex: reflex that requires interaction at more than one

synapse.
 Motor system of the brain
Reflex Control of Movement

Polysynaptic reflex: withdrawal reflex

 Motor system of the brain

More complex movements involve the brain

• Motor cortex
• Cerebellum
• Basal ganglia/Thalamus
 Motor system of the brain
The motor cortex
Motor cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex involved in the planning,
control, and execution of voluntary movements.
 Motor system of the brain
The motor cortex

• Primary motor cortex = main

contributor to generating neural
impulses
 Motor system of the brain
The motor cortex

• Primary motor cortex = main

contributor to generating neural
impulses
• Premotor cortex = motor control
(sensory/spatial guidance of
movement)
 Motor system of the brain
The motor cortex

• Primary motor cortex = main

contributor to generating neural
impulses
• Premotor cortex = motor control
(sensory/spatial guidance of
movement)
• Supplementary motor area = planning
of movement, coordination of the two
sides of the body (bi-manual
coordination)
 Motor system of the brain
The motor cortex

• Primary motor cortex = main

contributor to generating neural
impulses
• Premotor cortex = motor control
(sensory/spatial guidance of
movement)
• Supplementary motor area = planning
of movement, coordination of the two
sides of the body (bi-manual
coordination)
• Posterior parietal cortex =
transforming multisensory
information into motor commands
 Motor system of the brain
Cerebellum

The cerebellum modifies the motor commands of the descending pathways

to make movements more adaptive and accurate:
 Motor system of the brain
The basal ganglia
The basal ganglia is associated with a variety of functions, including voluntary
motor control and eye movements

Striatum (caudate
+ putamen)
Globus pallidus
Thalamus
 Motor system of the brain
The basal ganglia
The basal ganglia exert an inhibitory influence on a number of motor systems.

Following the initial

excitation of the
striatum, the
internal dynamics of
the basal ganglia are
dominated by
inhibition and
disinhibition
 Motor system of the brain
The basal ganglia
The basal ganglia exert an inhibitory influence on a number of motor systems.

Following the initial ↑GABA released on the GP

excitation of the
↑
striatum, the = inhibition of inhibitory
internal dynamics of neurons (disinhibition)
the basal ganglia are
↓ GABA released on the
dominated by thalamus
inhibition and
disinhibition ↑

↑
 Motor system of the brain
The basal ganglia
The basal ganglia exert an inhibitory influence on a number of motor systems.

Following the initial

excitation of the
striatum, the
internal dynamics of
the basal ganglia are
dominated by
inhibition and
disinhibition
 SUMMARY
Initiation of voluntary movement
 Motor system of the brain

Corticospinal tract (motor cortex

to ventral horn of the spinal cord):
fine voluntary motor control of the
limbs.

Rubrospinal tract (red nucleus to

lower motor neurons): involuntary
adjustment of arm position in
response to balance information;
support of the body.

The ventromedial tracts control

automatic movements such as posture
and muscle tone
 CHAPTER 7
Movements

OUTLINE

Muscles
Neural control of muscles
Motor systems of the brain
Movement disorders
Movement disorders
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Motor neuron disease (degeneration of

neurons)

Symptoms:
Rapid progressive weakness, muscle
atrophy, muscle spasticity.

Death within 3-4 years.

 Movement disorders
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Causes:
Genetic (5-10%): SOD1

Superoxide dismutase = protects

against superoxide (toxic free radical
produced by mitochondria)
 Movement disorders
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Treatment: Riluzole

Delays the onset of ventilator-dependence

May increase survival by approximately

two to three months
 Movement disorders
Parkinson’s disease
Degenerative disorder of the central nervous system
Due to degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra
 Movement disorders
Parkinson’s disease
Degenerative disorder of the central nervous system
Due to degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra
Movement disorders
Parkinson’s disease
 Movement disorders
Parkinson’s disease
Causes:
Environmental factors : pesticide exposure, head injuries, and living in the
country or farming

Genetic: 15% of individuals with PD have a first-degree relative who has the
disease. At least 5% of people are now known to have forms of the disease
that occur because of a mutation of one of several specific genes
 Movement disorders
Parkinson’s disease
Treatment:
There is no cure for Parkinson's disease, but medications, surgery and
multidisciplinary management can provide relief from the symptoms
Replace the DA in the brain Replace the DAergic neurons?
Movement disorders
Parkinson’s disease
 Movement disorders
Huntington’s disease

Neurodegenerative genetic disorder that affects muscle coordination and leads to

cognitive decline and psychiatric problems
 Movement disorders
Huntington’s disease

Cause: Genetic mutation in the Huntingtin gene

Inherited in a dominant fashion
 Movement disorders
Huntington’s disease

The most characteristic initial physical symptoms are jerky, random, and
uncontrollable movements called chorea
 Movement disorders
Huntington’s disease

Treatment:

There is no cure for HD, but there are treatments available to reduce the
severity of some of its symptoms

Motor symptoms = Excessive dopamine

Tetrabenazine was
approved in 2008 for
treatment of chorea
in Huntington's disease
QUESTIONS?