B 1.

1 Carbohydrates and Lipids

“In what ways do variations in form allow diversity of

function in carbohydrates and lipids?”

“How do carbohydrates and lipids compare as energy

storage compounds? ”
 Students should understand the nature of a covalent bond. Students should also understand that a carbon atom
Chemical properties of a carbon atom can form up to four single bonds or a combination of single and double bonds with other carbon atoms or atoms of
B1.1.1 allowing for the formation of diverse other non-metallic elements. Include among the diversity of carbon compounds examples of molecules with
compounds upon which life is based branched or unbranched chains and single or multiple rings.

Production of macromolecules by Students should be familiar with examples of polysaccharides, polypeptides and nucleic acids.
B1.1.2 condensation reactions that link
monomers to form a polymer

Digestion of polymers into monomers by Water molecules are split to provide the -H and -OH groups that are incorporated to produce monomers, hence the
B1.1.3 hydrolysis reactions name of this type of reaction.

Students should be able to recognize pentoses and hexoses as monosaccharides from molecular diagrams
showing them in the ring forms. Use glucose as an example of the link between the properties of a
B1.1.4 Form and function of monosaccharides monosaccharide and how it is used, emphasizing solubility, transportability, chemical stability and the
yield of energy from oxidation as properties.

Include the compact nature of starch in plants and glycogen in animals due to coiling and branching during
Polysaccharides as energy storage polymerization, the relative insolubility of these compounds due to large molecular size and the relative ease of
B1.1.5 compounds adding or removing alpha-glucose monomers by condensation and hydrolysis to build or mobilize energy stores.

Structure of cellulose related to its Include the alternating orientation of beta-glucose monomers, giving straight chains that can be grouped
B1.1.6 function as a structural polysaccharide in in bundles and cross-linked with hydrogen bonds.
plants

Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell Include ABO antigens as an example.

B1.1.7 recognition

Lipids are substances in living organisms that dissolve in non-polar solvents but are only sparingly soluble
B1.1.8 Hydrophobic properties of lipids in aqueous solvents. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes and steroids.

Formation of triglycerides and One glycerol molecule can link three fatty acid molecules or two fatty acid molecules and one phosphate group.
B1.1.9 phospholipids by condensation reactions

Include the number of double carbon (C=C) bonds and how this affects melting point. Relate this to the prevalence
Difference between saturated, mono- and of different types of fatty acids in oils and fats used for energy storage in plants and endotherms respectively.
B1.1.10 polyunsaturated fatty acids

Students should understand that the properties of triglycerides make them suited to long-term energy storage
Triglycerides in adipose tissues for energy functions. Students should be able to relate the use of triglycerides as thermal insulators to body temperature and
B1.1.11 storage and thermal insulation habitat.

Formation of phospholipid bilayers as a Students should use and understand the term “amphipathic”.
B1.1.12 consequence of the hydrophobic and
hydrophilic regions

Ability of non-polar steroids to pass Include oestradiol and testosterone as examples. Students should be able to identify compounds as steroids from
B1.1.13 through the phospholipid bilayer molecular diagrams.
Chemical properties of a carbon atom
Carbon is very abundant on the planet, and it forms the backbone of
every single organic molecule. Without carbon, life would not be possible.
The reasons for this are the specific features of the carbon atom.
Chemical properties of a carbon atom

Carbon can also form

multiple bonds: Single,
double and triple
covalent bonds
Carbon can form long chains
or rings of molecules.

Covalent bonds are the

strongest type of bond
between atoms. Stable
molecules can be formed.

Carbon can form

molecules with
many different
elements (metallic
and non-metallic)
Carbon atoms contain four
electrons in their outer shell
allowing them to form four
covalent bonds with other atoms.
Carbon-containing macromolecules

http://www.newcriticals.com/_img/_article-uploads/macromoleculechart.png
Carbon-containing macromolecules
Organic
Compounds
Carbohydrat Lipids Proteins Nucleic
es acids

They are They are Contain one or Nucleic acids are

composed of composed of more chains of chains of subunits
carbon, hydrogen carbon, amino acids. All of called nucleotides,
and oxygen. The hydrogen and the amino acids which contain
ratio of C:H:O is oxygen. With in the chains carbon, hydrogen,
1:2:1. C:H:O at a ratio contain carbon, oxygen, nitrogen
of 1:2:less hydrogen, oxygen and phosphorus.
than 1. and nitrogen.
Some of them
also contain
sulphur.
 Carbon-containing macromolecules
Carbohydrates are the largest group of organic compounds found in living
things. Depending on the number of building blocks that combine,
carbohydrates can be classified as mono-, di- or polysaccharides.
mono di ply
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides can be classified by the number of carbons they possess.

https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/773/flashcards/3102773/jpg/217_five_important_monosaccharides-01-14813CE6F417199934E.jpg
three-carbon sugars are called trioses, five carbon sugars are pentoses, six-
carbon sugars are called hexoses.
Monosaccharides Glucose has two isomers: alpha (α)
D-Glucose and beta (β) D-
Glucose:

http://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch05/05_07GlucoseStruc.jpg
The functional group (-OH) on the carbon 1 can be positioned in two different
orientations. These two orientations result in the formation of an isomer for
glucose – the molecular formula is the same, but the structural one is different.

Structural isomers have typically different chemical properties, and the type of isomer
often result to different bonding patterns when combined with other monomers.
Functions of monosaccharides
Glucose is polar and
Solubility: hydrophilic, and
therefore soluble in
aquaeous solutions
(like blood or plant
sap). It therefore can
be easily transported
Chemical stability: around.

Monosaccharides have
strong covalent bonds
and therefore are very
stable. This property is
useful for food storage.
Energy:
Glucose gives
out energy when
oxidized during
cellular
respiration.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharide monomers
join together in a condensation reaction. A strong covalent
bond (glycosidic bond) is formed between the monomers, and a
molecule of water is released.

Depending on the type of

monomers linked together,
different disaccharides are
formed. The most important

http://cdn1.askiitians.com/Images/2014728-15198595-8104-05_disaccharides.gif
ones include sucrose,
lactose and maltose.
Polysaccharides …consist of many monosaccharides linked
together. Starch, glycogen and cellulose are
polysaccharides – all composed of glucose
molecules.

http://media1.shmoop.com/images/biology/biobook_biomol_29.png
https://alevelbiology.co.uk/notes/polysaccharides/
Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis
A hydrolysis reaction is
the opposite of a
condensation reaction.

In this catabolic
(energy releasing) step
an enzyme (here
sucrase) and one
molecule of water are
used to hydrolyze
(break) the glycosidic
bond to release the
two monomers.
Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis
Digestion of polymers does not only take place in the digestive tract, but also
by decomposers, which release digestive enzymes into the environment
around them to break down polymers. The products of hydrolysis can then be
absorbed and used as monomers.

log/small-
/
te
m
sy
s-
e
tiv
s
ig
e
/d
ce
n
ci
es
-
t

Decomp
k/
gu
.u

Sin lt.
co
u
ak
.y

oser
https://grabngrowsoil.com/blog/real-importance-earthworms/ w
w
/
w
:/
s
p
tt
h

mt
Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen & Cellulose
Three different polysaccharides which are all
made up from the same monosaccharide
(glucose)
Polysaccharides as energy storage Plant cells
Starch is a a good storage for energy, because glucose molecules can be
removed from amylose and amylopectin chains and transported away or used
in the cell. The polysaccharide is also less soluble than glucose which means
that water is not drawn into the cell by osmosis causing swelling of cells.
Amylose

Amylopectin

Starch is a polysaccharide composed of two types of starch:

• Amylose (unbranched chains linked by  1 – 4 glycosidic bonds between glucose
molecules) which forms a curved helix.
• Amylopectin (branched chains with  1-6 glycosidic bonds.) forming a straight
chain.
Polysaccharides as energy storage Animal & Fungi
Glycogen serves as energy storage for glucose in animal cells. Just like with
starch, molecules of glucose can easily be hydrolyzed and used. This complex
carbohydrate is made in muscle and liver cells of animals. It is mostly insoluble
in water, preventing water to enter cells by osmosis and swelling to occur.

Glycogen is a branched polysaccharide of  glucose units similar to amylopectin.

• There are more 1-6 glycosidic bonds
• Because of the higher number of branches, it is more complex
Polysaccharides as structural component Plant cells
Cellulose is made by linking
together  1-4 glucose molecules.

Each  glucose
added to the chain
has to be
positioned at 180
to the previous
one, forming a
straight chain.
Parallel chains
become cross-
linked with
hydrogen bonds,
forming bundles of
microfibrils.

Function: The
microfibrils are
strong and rigid
and give tensile
strength to the
plant cells,
preventing them
from bursting
even with high
 Polysaccharides: Starch versus Celluose

http://www.mrkooldrink.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/01-starch-01.jpg http://www.the-food-muse.com/magazine/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/leaf_venation_large-700x325.jpg

rkooldrink.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/01-starch-01.jpg
Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition
Glycoproteins are membrane proteins with a carbohydrate attached to
them. They are important components of cell membranes in animal cells.
The carbohydrate chain faces outwards and can be recognized by other
receptors on other cells, playing an important role in cell-to-cell recognition.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-structure-and-function/plasma-membranes/a/structure-of-the-plasma-membrane
Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition
Red blood cells carry different glycoproteins on
their cell membrane. These ABO antigens are
important means of cell-cell recognition.

Each of the 4
different blood
types (A, B, AB or
O) carries a
different version of
a glycoprotein.
Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition

Acetylgalactosamine

Galactose

Red blood cells carry different glycoproteins on their cell membrane.

These ABO antigens are important means of cell-cell recognition. Each
of the 4 different blood types (A, B, AB or O) carries a different version
of a glycoprotein. Blood type A glycoprotein carries a different sugar
(acetylgalactosamine) than blood type B glycoprotein (galactose)
Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition
Glycoproteins embedded in cell membranes play an important role in the body’s
self and non-self recognition and play an important role in blood transfusions. A
person with blood group A has components of the defense system (antibodies)
which recognize blood cells from a person with blood group B as foreign.

Red blood cells

(Erythrocytes)
Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition
Properties of lipids
The lipids are a large class of organic compounds, including triglycerides,
steroids, waxes and phospholipids. They are all hydrophobic & insoluble in water.
Lipids
Fatty acids Glycerides

Saturated Unsaturated Triglycerides Phospholipids

http://bakerbiologychemistry.wikispaces.com/file/view/Lipids/168944873/Lipids
monounsaturated
polyunsaturated

Steroids Waxes Lipoproteins

hormones
cholesterol
Properties of lipids
Glycerides such as triglycerides and phospholipids are made up of fatty acid
molecules joined to a glycerol molecule. Look at the glycerol and the fatty acid
molecule shown below and identify important features:
Fatty acid: Glycerol:
Triglyceride & Phospholipid formation
Structure of a triglyceride
To form a triglyceride, one
molecule of glycerol bonds
with three fatty acids in a
condensation reaction. An
ester bond is formed, and
three molecules of water
are released.
Structure of a phospholipid

Formation of phospholipids
happens in the same way –
only that two fatty acids
are joined via an ester
bond. The third C-atom is
occupied by a hydrophilic
phosphate group.
Triglyceride formation
Draw the condensation reaction between a glycerol and three fatty acid chains
Phospholipid formation
Draw the condensation reaction between a glycerol, a phosphate group and
two fatty acid chains
Triglyceride & Phospholipid formation
Triglycerides and
phospholipids have a
similar composition with
small differences.

Triglyceride Phospholipid
Similarities
Differences
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
Fatty acids are classified as
lipids, which react together

http://courses.washington.edu/conj/membrane/fattyacid.png
with glycerol to form
triglycerides or phospholipids.
Fatty acids can be saturated,
unsaturated and
polyunsaturated

Saturated fatty acids (mostly animal fats) do

not have any double carbon bonds – their
carbon atoms are completely saturated with
hydrogen atoms in their structure.
Unsaturated fatty acids (plant oils) can have
one (monounsaturated) or several double
carbon bonds in their hydrocarbon tails.
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

b) Oelic acid
 Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

http://weknowyourdreams.com/images/meat/meat-04.jpg
Most animal fats
(except fish)
contain saturated
fatty acids.
http://www.jewelosco.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/oil.jpg

Many plant oils

(olive oil) contain
monounsaturated
fatty acids

Avocados and
vegetable oils, nuts
or fish contain
polyunsaturated
fatty acids.
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
Degree of unsaturation in fatty acids and melting point
The more double bonds there are in a

https://learnnutritionwithme.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/saturated-fatty-acids.gif
fatty acid, the more kinks the
hydrophobic tail has. This affects the
packing of fatty acids and therefore the
number of hydrophobic interactions
(weak chemical forces of attraction) can
be formed between them.
 Functions of triglycerides in adipose tissue
Adipose tissue is composed of adipose
cells (adipocytes) that store insoluble
fat in the form of triglycerides for
long-term energy storage.

Adipose tissue can

form a thick layer
under the skin,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28761795

https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/10/9/1798
acting as shock
absorber and
thermal insulator.

When energy is required, the stored

triglycerides can go through
hydrolysis reactions releasing glycerol
and fatty acids. They can be used in
cell respiration to produce twice as
much energy than sugars.
Functions of triglycerides in adipose tissue
Endotherms such as birds and mammals (whales, seals), which have
to maintain a steady internal temperature regardless of their
environmental temperature, have thick adipose tissue called blubber.

https://twitter.com/ferrisjabr/status/1258476978564300800

Blubber is found between the skin

and muscle, and because triglycerides
are poor conductors of heat, they
help trap the heat generated by the
inner metabolic activities.
Suitability of lipids as energy storage vs carbohydrates

Triglycerides Carbohydrates
Type and location Adipose tissue beneath the skin and around In skeletal muscle tissue and in the liver as
of tissue where organs (e.g. surrounding the kidneys) in glycogen, or as simple sugars
energy stores are endotherms (warm-blooded animals) or seeds. (glucose/fructose) dissolved in blood.
found Plants and cold-blooded animals store
unsaturated fats (liquid at low temperatures),
endotherms store saturated fats.

Energy contained Twice as much energy per gram, fats therefore Half as much energy contained per gram.
per gram of storage account for less mass than the equivalent Glycogen storages therefore account for a
form energy in carbohydrates. This is because they higher body mass.
can be more oxidized.

Short or long-term Long term storage Short term storage

energy storage?
How soluble and Insoluble in water. Cannot be mobilized Glucose is soluble and can easily be
easy to transport quickly. Do not cause osmotic consequences. transported around, glycogen and starch
are these storage are much less soluble and therefore used
forms? as storage form – no osmotic effect.
Formation of phospholipid bilayers
…as a consequence of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
• Phospholipids are important structural
components of cell membranes (bilayers).
• The presence of a phosphate group (PO43-)
causes polarity of the molecule. The
addition of this charged group makes a
polar (hydrophilic) "head" and two non-
polar (hydrophobic) "tails".

https://www.thoughtco.com/phospholipids-373561
Formation of phospholipid bilayers The fatty acid tails are
nonpolar, making this
The phosphate area of the molecule
head of the hydrophobic.
molecule is polar, Saturated fatty acid tail
making this area
hydrophilic.

ttp://homepage.smc.edu/wissmann_paul/anatomy2textbook/phospholipid.jpg
Molecules with
both,
hydrophilic and
hydrophobic
areas are called
amphipathic
molecules.
The phospholipid bilayer is selectively permeable
Because of their chemical properties, some molecules pass very easily through the
phospholipid bilayer. Other molecules need special type of transport systems.
nonpolar molecules
macromolecules Polar (charged)
molecules

http://bioserv.fiu.edu/~walterm/FallSpring/cell_components/cell_talk_files/image007.jpg
In general, hydrophobic (non-polar) molecules can pass easily through the
phospholipid bilayer because the interior of the cell membrane is also
hydrophobic. Charged or polar substances (hydrophilic) need special transport.
Nonpolar steroids pass through the phospholipid bilayer

Steroids are a group of lipids which all have four fused rings of
carbon atoms. There are many different types of steroids, and a
lot of them are forming hormones. However, they are all
hydrophobic and therefore easily pass through cell membranes
making them perfect chemical messengers around the body.