Time periods of adolescent

• Adolescence is a unique developmental period

– it keeps changing!
• Early adolescence – 11 to 13 years old
– Continues to be pushed earlier (9-10…)
• Middle adolescence – 14 to 17 years old
• Late adolescence (early adulthood) – 18 to 20
years old
– Continues to be pushed later (21-24…)
 Definition of Adolescence…
In underdeveloped nations, this period of time is relatively
short, and begins when children enter their reproductive
years. It may be marked by a transitional ritual called a ‘rite
of passage’. That might include a name change, a
ceremony or ritual of some sort, or a physical challenge.
Young girls having their first
menstrual cycle may be isolated in a
small hut before emerging as ‘a
woman’ months later. In this
picture, a young boy from an
Ethiopian tribe is beaten by the
males in the tribe and then must run
across the backs of 4 castrated
bulls before being declared ‘a man’.
No societies demands that a child
become an adult overnight… it is
always a period of time.
 Definition of Adolescence…
In industrialized nations, the
period of time considered
‘adolescence’ is considerably
longer, but still culminates in
the ‘achievement’ of becoming
an adult.

It is still often celebrated with

some type of ceremony/ritual.
In the United States, some
common ceremonies have
included: debutante balls,
confirmation, bat or bar
mitzvahs (Jewish), sweet Debutante Balls have been used
sixteen parties, baptisms, around the world by affluent
rumspringa (Amish), societies, as a way to introduce girls
graduations, and weddings. of ‘marrying age’ to the public.
 Definition of Adolescence…
Adolescence is that transitional period between the dependence of
childhood and the independence of adulthood.
It is the parent’s responsibility to
maintain control over their
adolescent child’s decision-
making while they become trust-
worthy and mature enough to
understand the long-term
consequences of their decisions.
The child, however, may not be
aware of their own maturity level
and ability to make good
decisions. Therefore, the
adolescent period becomes one of
struggle: parent vs. child.
THIS IS NORMAL.
Some parents may ‘give up’, when the struggle escalates. It can drive a
wedge between mothers and fathers if they don’t agree completely with
each other.
 Characteristics of Adolescence…
In the United States, the period of
adolescence is characterized by 4 factors: Adolescents tend to be
age-segregated. They
interact mostly with their
own age group, rather than
with younger children and
older adults. This may be
largely dictated by the
organization of our
educational system into
Jobs held by teens may give them an ‘grades’. Although
opportunity to spend time with other age adolescents may prefer to
groups: babysitting or working at a spend their time with
daycare OR working in a retail store or others of the same age
fast-food restaurant. proximity, it does limit their
ability to guide younger
people and learn from
older ones.
 Characteristics of Adolescence…
Adolescents are deeply affected by, and develop strong opinions
about the events of the era and society in which they live. They tend
to support idealism, and participate in movements toward social
reform.

They may be called upon to fight in

a war; the jobs available to them
are strongly influenced by
economic booms and downturns;
they support radical political and
religious movements; they
volunteer and support causes;
they participate in riots and
protests.
 Characteristics of Adolescence…
Adolescents are heavily targeted and influenced by mass media. With
rapidly developing physical and cognitive capacities, they are especially
vulnerable to the counterculture aspects of media programming. They
seek excessive stimulation, as they are bombarded with images and
sounds of tragedy, sexuality, and brutality via magazines, the internet,
TV, video games, loud music .
Adolescent Psychological Development
• Physical development
• Cognitive development
• Social development
• Identity development
• Moral development
 Physical development

• Pubertal development
• Bodily changes resulting in increased self-
consciousness, preoccupation and
questions of “Am I normal?’
• Alterations in sleep (and less!)
• Sexual interests and changes in social
responses
• Sexual identity development
 definition of puberty
• Pubertas – Latin word for “adult”
• Narrow definition: The process by
which an individual becomes
capable of reproduction.
– The activation of the HPG/HPA axis
• Broad definition: The physical,
psychological, and cultural changes
that occur as the growing child
transitions into adulthood.
 Impacts of puberty
• Sleep patterns
– Delayed phase preference
– 9 hours: 1 am to 10 am
• Family relations
– Transformation of parent-child bond
• Peer relations
– Transformation of friendships, romantic
relationships
 Impacts of puberty
• Self-esteem
– Changing body image
– Changing sense of self
• Moods
– Increased stress + Increased sensitivity
• Fluctuation of moods
– Due to hormones or environment?
– “Storm and stress”: myth or fact?
 Early maturation
• Boys
– Early maturation positives
• Popularity, higher self-esteem
– Early maturation negatives
• Deviant, risk behaviors; more rigidity later
• Girls
– Early maturation positives
• Popularity (cultural dependence)
– Early maturation negatives
• Lower self-esteem, eating disorders, emotions, deviant behaviors
 Late maturation
• Boys
– Late maturation positives
• Higher levels of creativity, inventiveness
– Late maturation negatives
• Low self-esteem, low social competence
• Girls
– Late maturation positives
• Thinner build
– Late maturation negatives
• Social withdrawal
 (pre) frontal development
• Final development of executive function
– Planning/problem-solving
– Impulse control
– Seat of “sober 2nd thought”
• Full maturation – sometime between
adolescence and early adulthood
• Coincides with child-onset schizophrenia
– Failure in executive functioning
 heightened arousal
• Increased hormone activity
– estrogen & testosterone
• Sexual stimulation
• Social status conflict
• Increased neurotransmitter activity
– heightened emotional sensitivity/reactivity
• Limbic system (norepinephrine)
– increased risk, stimulation-seeking behaviors
• Punishment/reward system (dopamine)
– increased fluctuations in mood
• Serotonin
 Cognitive Development
(historical review)
• Shift from concrete to formal operations, allowing for
greater abstract thinking skills, symbolic reasoning
and hypothetical analysis (Jean Piaget)
• Cognitive style is characterized by egocentricism
• “magical thinking”; imaginary audience”; “myth of
immunity”; and “personal fable” (Elkind)
 Emotion Brain-(limbic system)

• Amygdala-fear and anxiety center (fight,

flight, flood)

(this is an “amygdala
hijack” in action)

• Also hypocampus, ventral striatum,

hypothalamus, nucleus accumbens
 Brain Maturation
• Recent research shows that much of which has
been attributed to hormones is probably related
also to changes in brain structure (Giedd, 1999).

• The prefrontal cortex (“CEO”) of the adolescent

(~13yo) becomes pruned, sloughing off up to 40%
of its neural branches, as it grows new
neural connections for more
sophisticated functioning.

• Greater refinements in neural connectivity and

extensive myelination continue through
adolescence; the brain does not fully mature until
the early 20’s.
 Teen Brain

• Big engine—maturing bodies,

independence-striving
• Poor Driver—immature PFC and judgment
• Faulty Brake system—immature inhibitory
mechanisms in PFC
• High octane fuel—hormones
 Put
simply……
• During adolescence, behavior is often
more governed by the emotional centers
than the thinking centers of the brain,
especially during high arousal situations
and in peer presence.
 Adolescence:
“Storm and stress” theory

• Adolescent difficulties are neither inevitable or

universal
• Research on large populations of adolescents
indicates that teens experience more rapid mood
changes but no more depression/anxiety/pathology
than adult samples (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson)
• Surveys reveal that most adolescents describe
themselves as “mostly happy” and are adequately
adjusted (Offer)
Sensitivity of the teen brain to substances
• Alcohol stimulates the release of dopamine during the
“sensitive period” of adolescence, decreasing the natural
production.
• Heavy alcohol use interferes with memory and glutamate
functioning.
• Nicotine stimulates dopamine supply and affects other
neurotransmitters, allowing rapid addiction.
• Dopamine “squirts” result from computer games, stimulating
media, gambling and other high arousal pursuits.
• Changes in circadian rhythms alter alert-fatigue signals,
affecting memory and biorhythms
 In sum, the impact of brain changes on
adolescent reasoning, behavior and mood:

• Decision-making models don’t apply in high arousal

situations ( “cold” logic, as compared to “hot” arousal
situations)
• Impulse control reduction
• Poor risk assessment
• Executive functioning impairment
• Desire to escape boredom and negative affect by
“revving” up and seeking stimulation
• Parental disciplinary efforts at times of high arousal can
result in explosive conflict
 Social Development

• Desire for increased independence

• Preference for spending time with peers, orienting
increasingly to peers for social influence and values
clarification
• Most teens are more “attached” to their parents, but
they prefer the company of their friends
• Individuation from the family
• Cultural context plays a large role in determining
diverse paths within these developmental and
universal trajectories.
 Ethnic Diversity
• Developing a strong ethnic identity contributes to
high self-esteem among ethnic minority adolescents
(Carlson et al, 2000).
• Parents and role models are key for establishing
pride in shared values, traditions and practices of a
cultural group.
• Adolescence may be the first time they reflect on the
implications of their group identification.
 Identity development

• Erik Erikson’s major task of adolescence was

constructed as “identity v. role confusion” (Who am I
uniquely?)
• Researchers have documented how teens explore
beliefs with various levels of “crisis and
commitment” (e.g. religion, politics, sexuality,
educational and vocational choices).
• By their twenties, they will have an integrated set of
values reflecting their experiences and parental,
generational and cultural influences.
 Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning
Level 1
1. Obedience and punishment orientation (How do I avoid punishment?)
2. Self interest orientation (What’s in it for me?)

Level 2
3. Interpersonal conformity orientation (I’ll be good to you if you are good to
me)
4. Authority and social order orientation
(Law and order morality)

Level 3
5. Social contract orientation
(What makes a society run smoothly; concepts of liberty, justice,
democratic principles)
6. Universal principles
(principled conscience, e.g. Golden Rule,
civil disobedience)
 Adolescence as a period of normal risk-
taking and behavioral experimentation

• Adaptive identity development for most, but can

carry high risks and long term harm for others
• Early adolescence as a time of particular vulnerability
(school failure, STD’s, substance use)
• Family cohesiveness and authoritative parenting are
significant predictors for successful and safe
adolescent outcome (Baumrind; Shedler and Block;
Blum)
• What are some of the grounds of identity?
• Gender
• Ethnicity/culture
• Age group
• Vocation
• Political ideology
• Religious/moral values
• What is gender identity?
– Function of gender roles
• Adolescence – adulthood
– Gender intensification
• Social/cultural pressures
• Peer pressures
• Parental pressures
• Biological pressures
• What is ethnic identity?
– Identification
• Physical/psychological characteristics
• Cultural practices/beliefs
– Racial socialization
• Majority vs. minority status
• Dislocation from native lands
• Cultural heritage
– Positive vs. negative identity
• Assimilation vs. marginality
• Bi-culturalism
• Vocational identity
– Aspect of identity associated with career.
• Being a lawyer
• Being a janitor

• Religious identity
– Aspect of identity associated with religious belief system.
• Being a Christian or Hindu or Buddhist
• Being an atheist

• Age identity
– Aspects of identity associated with age group.
• Being a teenager
• Being an elderly person