RF SYSTEM DESIGN

CONCEPTS
 UNIT V

RF SYSTEM DESIGN CONCEPTS

Active RF components: Semiconductor basics in RF, bipolar

junction transistors, RF field effect transistors, High electron
mobility transistors. Basic concepts of RF design, Mixers, Low
noise amplifiers, voltage control oscillators, Power amplifiers,
transducer power gain and stability considerations.
RF TRANSISTORS
 (High Electron Mobility Transistor)
A REVOLUTION FOR HIGH SPEED
DEVICES
•SCHOOL OF MATERIAL SCIENCE
AND
NANOTECHNOLOGY
• 1960 GaN small crystals was made.
• 1980 Takashi Mimura, Fujitsu laboratories designed the
features of the first HEMT.
• 1985 HEMT was announced the lowest noise device.
• 1994 the first AlGaN/GaN HEMT was
demonstrated.
• After 2010 it is widely used for high speed devices.
•Short channel effects
•Gate leakage current
•Gate power dissipation
•Ionizing Impurities
•Lattice and impurities scattering
•Less mobility
•Less transconductance
HIGH ELECTRON MOBILITY TRANSISTORS
(HEMT)
•High speed device
•Referred to as heterojunction field effect transistors.
•Two layer of different semiconductor with different band gap
energies.
•Two disimmilar semiconductor having different band
energies.
•Lattice match between them.

Alx Ga(1-x)As/GaAs have excellent match.

Keeping the electron affinities correct resulted in a triangular quantum well in EC
(for this heterojunction combination):
J
Evac

Evac
q1 qm1

q2 qm2

EC1 EC

Eg1

EC2
EF1

EF2 GaAs
EV1

AlGaAs Eg2
Originally for high speed applications
•High power/ high temperature microwave
applications
•Power amplifiers
•Oscillators
•Cell Phones
•Radar
•Most MMIC’s radio frequency
•Comaptible for nano devices
LARGE SIGNAL DIODE
MODEL
LARGE SIGNAL BJT MODEL
LARGE SIGNAL BJT MODEL
– GUMMEL POON MODEL
LARGE SIGNAL FET MODEL
– MESFET MODEL
BASIC CONCEPTS OF RF
DESIGN
 RF System
• Building blocks in RF system and basic
performances
• Device characteristics in RF application
• Low noise amplifier design
• Mixer design
• Oscillator design

4
 Basic RF circuit
block
RF systems are composed of limited circuits blocks. LNA, Mixer, and Oscillator

1)
Receiver
Low
Impedance Noise
Matching Amp. 2) Mixer Filter

Transmitter 3) Oscillator

Power
Amp.

4
 Basic functions of RF
building blocks
Amplifier, frequency converter (mixer +oscillator), and filer are basic
function blocks in RF system.

2) Mixer+ Oscillator
Undesired
Down conversion

3) Filter Desired 1) Amplifier

dB dB
Frequency conversion

Up conversion
Log (f) Log (f)

4
LOW NOISE AMPLIFIERS
• The function of the LNA is to take the extremely weak and
uncertain signal from the antenna, usually on the order of
microvolts or under -100 dBm, and amplify it to a more useful
level, usually about one-half to one volt

PRIMARY PARAMETERS
• Gain: Amplify small signal or generate large signal.
• Noise Figure: Smaller noise and larger SNR.
• Linearity: Smaller non-linearity.

• Non-linearity generates undesired frequency components.

TWO STAGE LNA
CASCODE CMOS LNA
 MOS
transistor

49
Low noise amplifier
design

50
 Other architectures of LNAs

•Add output load to achieve voltage gain

•In practice, use cascode to boost gain
•Added benefit of removing Cgd effect
Differential LNA

Value of Ldeg is now much better controlled Much less sensitivity

to noise from other circuits

Twice the power as the single-ended version Requires differential

input at the chip
 RF MIXER
• To perform the functions of frequency up conversion and
down conversion between baseband signal frequencies
and RF carrier frequencies.
• Two input terminals and one output terminal
• Uses a non linear or time varying element to achieve
frequency conversion.
• An ideal mixer produces an output consisting of the sum
and difference frequencies of its two input signals
• The performance of practical RF and microwave mixers is
based on the nonlinearity provided by diode or a transistor.
• A nonlinear component generates a wide variety of
harmonics and other products of input frequencies, so
filtering must be used to select the desired frequency
components.
 TYPES OF MIXERS
• Single ended diode mixer
• Single ended FET mixer
• Balanced mixer
• Image – reject mixer
• Differential FET mixer
Mixer

30
Balanced mixer
 Image-reject
mixers

59
 Passive FET
mixer
MOS can realize a passive mixer easily.
Ultimately low power, but take care of isolation.

Passive FET mixer

Vin
Low power
High linearity
Lo No 1/F noise
Lo
Vo No conversion gain
Vo
No isolation, Bi-directional
Lo Lo

Vin
60
 Active
mixers
Single balanced mixer Double balanced mixer
Very small direct feed through and even order distortion

ZL ZL ZL ZL
Vo Vo Vo
Vo
Lo Lo
M2 M3
M2 M3 M2’
Lo Lo Lo
Vin M3’
M1 Vin Vin
M1 M1
’
Zs
Zs Zs

61
Introduction to RF VCO Design
Design Procedure
POWER AMPLIFIERS
 RF and Microwave Amplifiers

Most RF and microwave amplifiers today used

transistor devices such as Si or SiGe BJTs, GaAs HBTs
(Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor), GaAs or InP
(Indium Phosphide) FETs, or GaAs HEMTs (High
electron mobility transistor).

Microwave transistor amplifiers are rugged, low cost,

reliable and can be easily integrated in both hybrid
and monolithic integrated circuitry.

80
 Amplifier Classification
 Amplifier can be categorized in 2 manners.
 According to signal level:
 Small-signalAmplifier.
 Power/Large-signal Amplifier.

 According to D.C. biasing scheme of the active component:

 Class A.

 Class B.

 Class AB.

 Class C.

There
There are
are also
also other
other classes,
classes, such
such as
as Class
Class DD (D
(D stands
stands for
for
digital),
digital), Class
Class EE and
and Class
Class F.F. These
These allall uses
uses the
the
transistor/FET as a switch. 81
 Typical RF Amplifier
Characteristics
To determine the performance of an amplifier, the following
characteristics are typically observed.
1. Power Gain. Important to small-signal
amplifier
2. Bandwidth (operating frequency range).
3. Noise Figure.
4. Phase response.
5. Gain compression. Important parameters of
large-signal amplifier
6. Dynamic range. (Related to Linearity)
7. Harmonic distortion.
8. Intermodulation distortion.
9. Third order intercept point (TOI).
82
 Power Gain Definition
From the power components, 3 types of power gain can be defined.

The effective power gain

GP, GA and GT can be expressed as the S-parameters

(Scattering parameters) of the amplifier and the reflection
coefficients of the source and load networks.
85
 TWO-PORT POWER GAIN
Power Gain = G = PL / Pin is the ratio of power dissipated in the
load ZL to the power delivered to the input of the two-port network.
This gain is independent of Zs although some active circuits are
strongly dependent on ZS.

Available Gain = GA = Pavn / Pavs is the ratio of the power available

from the two-port network to the power available from the source.
This assumes conjugate matching in both the source and the load,
and depends on ZS but not ZL.

Transducer Power Gain = GT = PL / Pavs is the ratio of the power

delivered to the load to the power available from the source. This
depends on both ZS and ZL.
If the input and output are both conjugately matched to the two-
86
Summary of Important Power Gain Expressions and the Gain
Dependency Diagram
 1   2  s 2
s 21
GA   
2 2
1  s11s  1  2 
 

2 2  1   2  s 2  1   2 
s21  1  L  L 21 s
  GT     
GP  2 2
2 2 1  s22L 1  1s
1  s22L  1  1 
 
GT  s s  s s
11 22 12 21

Note:
GA s L GP All GT, GP, GA, 1 and 2
depends on the S-
parameters.
1 2 The Gain Dependency Diagram
 s11 s12 
s 
 21 s22  87
 TWO-PORT POWER GAIN
A special case of the transducer power gain occurs when both
input and output are matched for zero reflection (in contrast to
conjugate matching).
2
GT  S 21
Another special case is the unilateral transducer power gain,
GTU where S12=0 (or is negligibly small). This nonreciprocal
characteristic is common to many practical amplifier circuits.
Γin = S11 when S12 = 0, so the unilateral transducer gain is:

GTU 
2

S 21 1  S
2
1   
L
2

2 2
1  S11 S 1  S 22in
88
TWO-PORT POWER GAIN
The general transistor
amplifier circuit

89
TWO-PORT POWER GAIN
The separate effective gain factors:
2
1  S
GS  2
1  inS
2
G0  S 21
2
1  L
GL  2
1  S 22L

90
TWO-PORT POWER GAIN
If the transistor is unilateral, the unilateral
transducer gain reduces to GTU = GSG0GL , where:
2
1  S
GS  2
1  S11 S
2
G0  S 21
2
1  L
GL  2
1  S 22L

91
Stability of Amplifiers
In a two-port network, oscillations are possible if the
magnitude of either the input or output reflection
coefficient is greater than unity, which is equivalent to
presenting a negative resistance at the port.

This instability is characterized by

|Gin| > 1 or |Gout| > 1

which for a unilateral device implies |S11| > 1 or |S22| > 1.

92
 Stability
Stability circles determine what load or source impedances
should be avoided for stable or non oscillatory amplifier
behavior Because reactive loads are being added to amp the
conditions for oscillation must be determined

So the Output Stability Circle determine the ΓL or load

impedance (looking into matching network from output of
amplifier) that may cause oscillation Input Stability Circle
determine the ΓS or input impedance (looking into matching
network from input of amp) that may cause oscillation
Stability Requirements
Thus the requirements for stability are

S12 S 21 L
in = S11 + <1
1 S 22  L
and

| out | = S22 +l < 1

These are defined by circles, called stability circles, that

delimit |Gin | = 1 and | GL | = 1 on the Smith chart.

94
Stability Regions: Stability
Circles
Regions of amplifier stability can be depicted using stability
circles using the following:
Output stability circle:
  S 
* *
S12 S21 S 22 11
rout  2 2
, Cout  2 2
S22   S22  

 S11S22  S12 S21

Input stability circle:
  S 
* *
S12 S 21 S 11 22
rin  2 2
, Cin  2 2
S11   S11  
95
Stability Regions: Stability
Circles

96
Stability Regions: Output
Stability Circles

97
Stability Regions: Input
Stability Circles

98
Different Input Stability Regions

Dependent on ratio between rs

and |Cin| 99
Unconditional Stability Unconditional Stability when
amplifier remains stable throughout the entire domain of the
Smith Chart at the operating bias and frequency. Condition for
unconditional stability: (i) (ii)

Stability circles reside completely outside |GS| =1 and |GL| =1. Rollet Factor k:
2 2 2
|Cin| – rin| >1 and |Cout| – rout | >1with | 1  S11  S22  
S11| < 1 or |S22| < 1 k 1
2 S12 S21 100
Constant Gain Amplifier

101
Constant Gain Circles in the Smith
Chart
To obtain desired amplifier gain performance

102
 SOURCE REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

LOAD REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

INPUT REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

OUTPUT REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

 TRANSDUCER GAIN

UNILATERAL TRANSDUCER GAIN

AVAILABLE GAIN

OPERATING POWER GAIN

INCIDENT POWER FLOW INTO THE AMPLIFIER

POWER DELIVERED TO THE LOAD