CHAPTER ONE

Basic Semiconductor Theory

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 Atoms

• An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of that
element.
• It is made out of a nucleus and a number negatively charged electrons. Electrons
are orbiting in one or more shells around the nucleus.
• The nucleus consists of positively charged particles, called protons, and
uncharged particles called neutrons.

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 Examples of Atoms

• Some typical elements are the Hydrogen that has only 1 electron and one proton,
the Helium that has 2 electrons, two protons and two neutrons, and the Silicon that
has 14 electrons and 14 protons.
-
-
- -

-
- - - - +14 - - -

+ + + - -

- -
-

Hydrogen Helium Silicon

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The Bohr Model

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 Valance Electrons, Free Electrons and Conductivity

• Orbiting electrons in an atom are attracted by the positively charged protons.

• Electrons in orbits farther from the nucleus are less tightly bound to the atom than
those closer to the nucleus.
• Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are relatively loosely bound to the
atom. These electrons are called the valance electrons and contribute to chemical
reactions and bonding within the structure of a material.
• When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from light, its electrons gain
energy and move to an orbit farther from the nucleus.If a valance electron gains
sufficient amount of energy, it can be completely removed from the atom, and
become a free electron.
• The number of free electrons in a material determines its resistance to electric
current. This number increases as the temperature increases.
• Materials with relatively few free electrons are called insulators, and posses a
high resistance to electric current. Materials with relatively large number of free
electrons are called conductors, and posses a low resistance to electric current.

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 Conductors
• Conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current.
• The best conductors are single-element materials, such as copper,
silver, gold, and aluminum, which are characterized by atoms with
only one valence electron very loosely bound to the atom.
• These loosely bound valence electrons can easily break away from
their atoms and become free electrons.
• Therefore, a conductive material has many free electrons that, when
moving in a net direction, make up the current.

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 Insulators
• An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current
under normal conditions.
• Most good insulators are compounds rather that single-element
materials.
• Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore, there
are very few free electrons in an insulator.

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 Semiconuctors
• A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and
insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current.
• A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good
conductor nor a good insulator.
• The most common single-element semiconductors are silicon,
germanium, and carbon.
• Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are also
commonly used.
• The single-element semiconductors are characterized atoms with
four valence electrons.

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9
 Semiconductor Crystals
• Two widely used types of semiconductor -

materials are Silicon and Germanium.

• Their atoms have 4 valance electrons. - Si -

• When their atoms combine to form a solid -

- -
-

- -
material, they arrange themselves in a
fixed pattern called a crystal. - Si Si Si -

• The atoms within a crystal are held -

- -
-

- -
together by covalent bonds, which are
created by the valance electrons of each - Si -

atom.
-
• Covalent bonds attach the atoms together,
because the valance electrons of adjacent
atoms are attracted equally by the protons
in the nucleus of the atoms.
• A small number of valance electrons can
escape and become free electron, leaving
a positively charged Hole in the atom.
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11
12
13
 n-Type Semiconductors
• Intrinsic (pure) semiconductor materials have
a low conductivity, due to the small number of
-

Free
free electrons. Electron
- Si - -

• Their conductivity can be increased and

controlled by the addition of impurities. This
- -
- -
- -
process is called doping.
- Si Sb Si -
• Atoms such as the Antimony (Sb) have 5
valance electrons. When these atoms are
- -
- -
- -
added in pure silicon, then each antimony
atom forms a covalent bond with the four - Si -

adjacent silicone atoms, leaving one free

electron that is not attracted by any atom. -

• The number of free electrons can be

controlled by the amount of impurity added to - - - - -
- - - - -
the silicon. - n-type -
• The semiconductor produced by adding - - - - -
pentavalent (impurities with 5 valance - - - - -
electrons) impurities to pure semiconductors
is called the n-type semiconductor.

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15
 p-Type Semiconductors
• Atoms such as the Boron (B) have 3 valance -

electrons. When these atoms are added in

pure silicon, then each boron atom forms a - Si -
Hole
covalent bond with the four adjacent silicone - -

atoms. An electron is though missing since -

-
-

boron has only 3 valance electrons, leaving a - Si B Si -

positively charged hole. - -

• The number of holes in the semiconductor -

- -
-

material can be controlled by the amount of - Si -

impurity added to the silicon.

• The semiconductor produced by adding -

trivalent (impurities with 3 valance electrons)

+ + + + +
impurities to pure semiconductors is called + + + + +
the p-type semiconductor. + p-type +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +

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17
 pn- junction
• A pn junction is formed by connecting a p- • At some point the force on the
type semiconductor with an n-type
electrons that moved in the p-region is
semiconductor.
the same as the force due to the holes
• Initially, at the point of contact, the free
that moved in the n-region, thus these
electrons of the n-type region recombine
with the holes of the p-type region. electrons are trapped in the p-region.
• Due to the force of attraction between the • The same applies to the holes that
electrons and holes, some electrons move moved in the n-region.
to the p-region while some holes move to • This creates a barrier between the two
the n-region. regions, called the Depletion Layer.

Depletion
Layer

+ + + + + + - - - - - - + + + + + - - + + - - - - -
+ + + + + + - - - - - - + + + + + - - + + - - - - -
+ p-type + - n-type - + p-type - - + + n-type -
+ + + + + + - - - - - - + + + + + - - + + - - - - -
+ + + + + + - - - - - - + + + + + - - + + - - - - -

VD

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19
20
 Biasing the pn-junction:- Forward Bias (V < VD)

Depletion
Layer
+ + + + + - - - - -
+ + + + + - - - - -
+ p-type + - n-type -
- + + + + + - - - - - -
+ + + + + - - - - -

- VD

-
V<V D
+ -
- - - - - -

• If a voltage source is connected to a pn-junction with the positive terminal connected

on the p-region and the negative on the n-region then the junction is forward biased.
• In this case the positive terminal of the source push the holes of the p-region
towards the n-region, while the negative terminal push the electrons towards the p-
region.
• This reduces the width of the depletion layer. If the source voltage is less than the
depletion voltage, then the width of the depletion layer is only reduced, not
eliminated. Thus, only a very small current flows through the circuit.

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 Biasing the pn-junction:- Forward Bias (V >= VD)

+ + + + - - - - p-type n-type
- - - - + + + + Rp + - Rn
p-type n-type
- - - - - + -
+ + +
- - - -
-

+ + + +

-
-

VD

-
-

V >= V D

-
+ - + -
- - - - - - - - - -

• If the source voltage is greater than the depletion voltage, then the depletion layer is
eliminated, and a large number of electrons gain enough energy to become valance
electrons. Thus a large current flows through the pn-junction.
• In this case the pn-junction behaves like a resistance (Rp + Rn) with a voltage
source (VD).
• The bulk resistance (Rp + Rn) is very low (few ohms), thus to avoid damaging the
pn-junction, a liming resistor is usually connected in series.
• The depletion voltage for silicon pn-junctions is 0.7V and for germanium 0.3V.

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 Biasing the pn-junction:- Reverse Bias
Depletion
Layer
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ p-type - + n-type -
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ + + - - + + - - -

-
VD

-
- +
- -

• If the source voltage is connected in such a way so that the negative terminal is connected on
the p-region and the positive on the n-region, then the pn-junction is reversed biased.
• In this case the source voltage widens the depletion layer. Only a very small currents flows the
circuit due to the small number of minority curriers in the pn-junction.
• If the source voltage increases further, then the depletion layer widens more, creating a gap
between the p-region and the n-region, that behaves as a capacitance.
• Further increase in the source voltage will lead to a state known as the avalanche
breakdown, where a large reverse current flows through the circuit.

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 The PN-Junction Diode

• A pn junction is formed by connecting a p-type semiconductor with an n-type

semiconductor.
• Initially, at the point of contact, the free electrons of the n-type region recombine
with the holes of the p-type region.
• Due to the force of attraction between the electrons and holes, some electrons move
to the p-region while some holes move to the n-region.
• At some point the force on the electrons that moved in the p-region is the same as
the force due to the holes that moved in the n-region, thus these electrons are
trapped in the p-region.
• The same applies to the holes that moved in the n-region.
• This creates a barrier between the two regions, called the Depletion Layer.
Depletion
Layer
+ + + + + - - + + - - - - -
+ + + + + - - + + - - - - - Symbol Terminal Identification
+ p-type - - + + n-type -
+ + + + + - - + + - - - - - Anode Cathode Anode Cathode
+ + + + + - - + + - - - - -

VD
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 Biasing the Junction Diode:- Forward Bias (V < VD)
• If a voltage source is connected to a Depletion
Layer
pn-junction with the positive terminal + + + + + - - - - -
connected on the p-region and the + + + + + - - - - -
+ p-type + - n-type -
negative on the n-region then the - + + + + + - - - - - -
junction is forward biased. + + + + + - - - - -

• In this case the positive terminal of the

-
VD

-
source pushes the holes of the p-region
V<V
towards the n-region, while the negative
D
+ -
- - - - - -
terminal pushes the electrons towards
the p-region.
I (mA)
• This reduces the width of the depletion
layer. If the source voltage is less than
the depletion voltage, then the width of
the depletion layer is only reduced, not
eliminated. Thus, only a very small
current flows through the circuit.
V (V)

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 Biasing the Junction Diode:- Forward Bias (V >= VD)

+ + + + - - - - p-type n-type
- - - - + + + + Rp + - Rn
p-type n-type
- - - - - + -
+ + +
- - - -
-

+ + + +

-
-

VD

-
-

V >= V D

-
+ - + -
- - - - - - - - - -

• If the source voltage is greater than the depletion voltage, then the depletion layer is
eliminated, and a large number of electrons gain enough energy to become valance
electrons. Thus a large current flows through the pn-junction.
• In this case the pn-junction behaves like a resistance (Rp + Rn) with a voltage
source (VD).
• The bulk resistance (Rp + Rn) is very low (few ohms), thus to avoid damaging the
pn-junction, a liming resistor is usually connected in series.
• The depletion voltage for silicon pn-junctions is 0.7V and for germanium 0.3V.

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 Junction Diode Forward Characteristics
• Ideal Junction Diode: (Assume that the internal resistance of the diode is zero)
– Silicon diode: if V<0.7V then I = 0. if V>0.7V then I = ∞. For germanium V=0.3V.
I (mA)
VD
0.7V

V (V)

0.7V

• Non-ideal Junction Diode:

– Need to consider the internal resistance of the pn-junction
I (mA)
rD
VD
0.7V

V (V)
0.7V

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 Biasing the pn-junction:- Reverse Bias
Depletion I (mA)
Layer
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ p-type - + n-type -
+ + + - - + + - - -
+ + + - - + + - - -
V (V)

-
VD
-

- +
- -

• If the source voltage is connected in such a way so that the negative terminal is
connected on the p-region and the positive on the n-region, then the pn-junction is
reversed biased.
• In this case the source voltage widens the depletion layer. Only a very small currents
flow in the circuit due to the small number of minority curriers in the pn-junction.
• If the source voltage increases further, then the depletion layer widens more, creating
a gap between the p-region and the n-region, that behaves as a capacitance.
• Further increase in the source voltage will lead to a state known as the avalanche
breakdown, where a large reverse current flows through the circuit.

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