Analog Filter Design

BASIC LINEAR DESIGN

Introduction
• Filters have a frequency dependent response because the impedance of a capacitor or
an inductor changes with frequency.

• where σ is the Neper frequency in nepers per second (NP/s) and ω is the angular
frequency in radians per sec (rad/s).
Basic Circuits
• By using standard circuit analysis techniques, the transfer equation of the filter can be developed.
These techniques include Ohm’s law, Kirchoff’s voltage and current laws, and superposition,
remembering that the impedances are complex. The transfer equation is then:

• Where , and , are real numbers. H(s) is a rational function of s with real coefficients with the
degree of m for the numerator and n for the denominator. The degree of the denominator is the
order of the filter.
• Solving for the roots of the equation determines the poles (denominator) and zeros (numerator) of
the circuit. Each pole will provide a –6 dB/octave or –20 dB/decade response. Each zero will provide
a +6 dB/octave or +20 dB/decade response. These roots can be real or complex. When they are
complex, they occur in conjugate pairs.
• These roots are plotted on the s plane (complex plane) where the horizontal axis is σ (real axis)
and the vertical axis is ω (imaginary axis).
• How these roots are distributed on the s plane can tell us many things about the circuit.
• In order to have stability, all poles must be in the left side of the plane.
• If we have a zero at the origin, that is a zero in the numerator, the filter will have no response at dc (high-pass or band
pass).
• Solving for the roots of the equation determines the poles (denominator) and zeros
(numerator) of the circuit. Each pole will provide a –6 dB/octave or –20 dB/decade
response. Each zero will provide a +6 dB/octave or +20 dB/decade response. These
roots can be real or complex. When they are complex, they occur in conjugate pairs.
• These roots are plotted on the s plane (complex plane) where the horizontal axis is σ
(real axis) and the vertical axis is ω (imaginary axis).
• How these roots are distributed on the s plane can tell us many things about the circuit.
• In order to have stability, all poles must be in the left side of the plane.
• If we have a zero at the origin, that is a zero in the numerator, the filter will have no response at dc (high-
pass or band pass).
Basic Linear Design
• Assume an RLC circuit, as in Figure
• Using the voltage divider concept it can be shown that the voltage across the resistor
is:

• Substituting the component values into the equation yields:

• Factoring the equation and normalizing gives:

• This gives a zero at the origin and a pole pair at:

• Next, plot these points on the s plane as shown

• Fo is the cutoff frequency of the filter where the response is down 3 dB from the pass
band.
• It can sometimes be defined as the frequency at which it will fall out of the pass band.
For example, a 0.1 dB Chebyshev filter can have its Fo at the frequency at which the
response is down > 0.1 dB.
• The shape of the attenuation curve (as well as the phase and delay curves, which
define the time domain response of the filter) will be the same if the ratio of the actual
frequency to the cutoff frequency is examined, rather than just the actual frequency
itself.
• Normalizing the filter to 1 rad/s, a simple system for designing and comparing filters
can be developed. The filter is then scaled by the cutoff frequency to determine the
component values for the actual filter.
• Q is the “quality factor” of the filter. It is also sometimes given as α where

• This is commonly known as the damping ratio. ξ is sometimes used where

• If Q is > 0.707, there will be some peaking in the filter response. If the Q is < 0.707,
rolloff at F0 will be greater; it will have a more gentle slope and will begin sooner. The
amount of peaking for a 2 pole low-pass filter vs. Q is shown in Figure
Low Pass Filter
• The transfer function H(s) in terms of
ωo and Q:

• where Ho is the pass-band gain and

ωo = 2π Fo.
• This is now the low-pass prototype
that will be used to design the filters.
High-Pass Filter
• Changing the numerator of the transfer
equation, H(s), of the low-pass prototype
to H0s2 transforms the low-pass filter into
a high-pass filter. The response of the
high-pass filter is similar in shape to a low-
pass, just inverted in frequency.
• The transfer function of a high-pass filter
is then:

• The response of a 2-pole high-pass filter is

illustrated in Figure
Band-Pass Filter
• Changing the numerator of the lowpass prototype to Hoωo 2 will convert the filter
to a band-pass function. The transfer function of a band-pass filter is then:

• ωo here is the frequency (F0 = 2 π ω0) at which the gain of the filter peaks.
• Ho is the circuit gain and is defined:

• Q has a particular meaning for the band-pass response. It is the selectivity of the
filter. It is defined as:

• where FL and FH are the frequencies where the response is –3 dB from the
maximum.
• The bandwidth (BW) of the filter is described as:
• It can be shown that the resonant frequency (F0) is the geometric mean of FL and FH,

• which means that F0 will appear half way between FL and FH on a logarithmic scale.

• Also, note that the skirts of the band-pass response will always be symmetrical around
F0on a logarithmic scale.
• The response of a band-
pass filter to various
values of Q are shown
• A word of caution is appropriate here.
Band-pass filters can be defined two
different ways. The narrow-band case is
the classic definition that we have
shown above.
• In some cases, however, if the high and
low cutoff frequencies are widely
separated, the band-pass filter is
constructed out of separate high-pass
and low-pass sections. Widely
separated in this context means
separated by at least 2 octaves (× 4 in
frequency). This is the wideband case.
Band-Reject (Notch) Filter
• By changing the numerator to s2 + ωz2, we
convert the filter to a band-reject or notch
filter.
• As in the bandpass case, if the corner
frequencies of the band-reject filter are
separated by more than an octave (the
wideband case), it can be built out of
separate lowpass and high-pass sections.
• We will adopt the following convention: A
narrow-band band-reject filter will be
referred to as a notch filter and the
wideband band-reject filter will be referred
to as band-reject filter.
• A notch (or band-reject) transfer function is:
• There are three cases of the notch filter
characteristics. These are illustrated in Figure The
relationship of the pole frequency, ω0, and the zero
frequency, ωz, determines if the filter is a standard
notch, a lowpass notch or a highpass notch.
• If the zero frequency is equal to the pole frequency a standard
notch exists. In this instance the zero lies on the jω plane
where the curve that defines the pole frequency intersects the
axis.
• A lowpass notch occurs when the zero frequency is greater
than the pole frequency. In this case ωz lies outside the curve
of the pole frequencies. What this means in a practical sense
is that the filter's response below ωz will be greater than the
response above ωz. This results in an elliptical low-pass filter.
• A high-pass notch filter occurs when the zero frequency is less
than the pole frequency. In this case ωz lies inside the curve
of the pole frequencies. What this means in a practical sense
is that the filters response below ωz will be less than the
response above ωz . This results in an elliptical high-pass
filter.
All-pass Filter
• There is another type of filter that leaves the amplitude of the signal intact but
introduces phase shift. This type of filter is called an all-pass.
• The purpose of this filter is to add phase shift (delay) to the response of the circuit.
• The amplitude of an all-pass is unity for all frequencies.
• The phase response, however, changes from 0° to 360° as the frequency is swept from
0 to infinity.
• The purpose of an all-pass filter is to provide phase equalization, typically in pulse
circuits. It also has application in single side band, suppressed carrier (SSB-SC)
modulation circuits
• The transfer function of an all-pass filter is:
• Note that an all-pass transfer function can be synthesized as:

• Figure 8.10 (opposite) compares the various filter types.