1

Hard – wired Control

MODULE 4
Hard – wired Control 2

 Control hardware design can be assumed as a sequential digital system

design
 As per the content of IR, the external inputs and states are selected
 The outputs are the control signals
 Hardware design of control system assumes the design the data flow as
per the wiring/ connection of the components
 The design of hardwired control is carried out in 5 consecutive steps
1. The problem is stated
2. An initial equipment configuration is assumed
3. An algorithm is formulated
4. The data processor part is specified
5. The control logic is designed
Hard wired Control – Design 3

Example
 1. Statement of the problem:
 Addition and subtraction of two fixed-point binary numbers represented
in sign-magnitude form
 The addition of two numbers stored in registers of finite length may result in a
sum that exceeds the storage capacity of the register by one bit
 The extra bit is said to cause an overflow
 2. Equipment Configuration 4
• Two signed binary numbers to be
added or subtracted contain n bits
• Magnitudes of the numbers contain n -
1 bits & stored in registers A and B
• Sign bits are stored in flip-flops As and
Bs
• ALU performs operations
• E serves as the overflow flip-flop(1 bit)
• Output carry is transferred to E
• Two input signals specify the add (qa)
and subtract (qs) operations
• Output variable x indicates the end of
the operation
 3. Derivation of the Algorithm
5
 When the numbers are added or subtracted algebraically, there are eight different conditions to consider,
depending on the sign of the numbers and the operation performed
 The eight conditions may be expressed in a compact form as follows:
(±𝐴) ± (±𝐵)
 If the arithmetic operation specified is subtraction, we change the sign of B and add
(±𝐴) − (+𝐵) = (±𝐴) + (−𝐵)
(± 𝐴) − (−𝐵) = (±𝐴) + (+𝐵)
 This reduces the number of possible conditions to four, namely:
(±𝐴) + (±𝐵)
 The four possible combination are
 When the signs of A and B are the same: (+𝐴) + (+ 𝐵) = +(𝐴 + 𝐵)
(−𝐴) + (− 𝐵) = −(𝐴 + 𝐵)
 When the signs of A and B are not the same (+ 𝐴) + (− 𝐵) = +(𝐴−𝐵) [ if(A>B) ]
−(𝐵−𝐴) [ if(B>A) ]

(−𝐴) + (+𝐵) = −(𝐴−𝐵) [ if(A>B) ]

+(𝐵−𝐴) [ if(B>A) ]
 6

(±𝐴) − (+𝐵) = (±𝐴) + (−𝐵)

(± 𝐴) − (−𝐵) = (±𝐴) + (+𝐵)
 A = +5 B = -2 A+B = A+B’+1 7
(A>B)
 A = 0101 B = 0010 (+2)
2’s complement of B = 1101+1 =
1110
 A A + B  0 1 0 1 +
1110
1 0 0 11  (E=1) Result in A=0011 (3),
Sign =As (+ve)
Discard Carry
So E  0
 (A<B)  E=0, Result is Negative
8
 A = -15 B= So find 2’s complement of A 00101 +1
+9 =00110 (+6)

 But answer is -6
A = -15
So complement As
+15  01111
So Result will be -6
-15  10000+1 = 10001

 B = +9 = 01001

A A + B 10001+
01001
A 11010
 9
Data Processor Register and ALU
 4. Data Processor Specification 10
 Control receives five inputs: Two from
external environment three from data
processor
 XOR operation =1 if two signs are not same
and it is equal to 0 if signs are both +ve or
both –ve
 The control unit provides an output x for
the external circuit indicating operation
terminated
 Select the operation in the ALU through the
selection variables s2, s1, s0 and Cin Control Block Diagram
 Other four go to register in the data
processor unit
Control State Diagram 11
 12

Sequence of register transfer

5. Design of Hardwired Control 13

 Here we use a control organization that uses one flip – flip per state
and choose D flip flop
 The next state of D flip flop is a function of the D input and is
independent of the present state
 Since the method requires one flip flop per each state, we choose 8 D
flipflops and label their outputs T0, T1,…. T7
 The condition for setting the given flip flop is specified in the state
diagram
 14
Boolean functions for
control
 For example, flip-flop T2 is set with the next clock pulse if T1= I or if T0 15
= 1 and qa = 1
 This condition can be defined with the Boolean function:
DT2 = qaT0 + T1
where DT2 designates the D input of flip-flop T2
 If there is more than one directed line going into a state, all conditions
must be ORed
 Initially, flip-flop T0 is set and all others are cleared
 At any given time, only one D input is in the 1 state while all others are
maintained at 0
 The next clock pulse sets the flip-flop whose D input is 1 and clears all
others
16
 17

Microprogram Control
 Control Memory 18
 In a micro-program control, the control variables that initiate micro-operations are
stored in memory called control memory
 The control memory is a ROM, since the control sequence is permanent and needs no
alteration
 Micro Instructions
 The word stored in the control memory are micro-instructions
 Each micro-instruction specifies one or more micro-opeartions
 Once the micro-operations are executed the control unit must specify the address of the
next micro-instruction
 The micro instruction contains bits for
1. Initiating micro-operations
2. Generating next address
A micro-program control unit must include special circuits for selecting the next address
as specified by the micro-instructions
 19
 Micro-instructions
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

 14 bit micro-instruction
 Bit 1-9: control word used to select a micro-operation
 Bit 10-12: 3 bit address to select 8 words
 Bit 13-14: selection bits for the multiplexer

 Control Address Register (CAR)

 CAR holds the address for the control memory
 CAR is a counter with parallel load capacity
 The register receives an input value when its load control is enabled,
otherwise it is incremented by 1
 20

 Since there are 8 states in the control, we choose a control

memory with 8 words having addresses 0 through 7
 Inspection of the state diagram reveals that the address
sequencing in the microprogram control must have the following
capabilities
 Provision for loading an external address as a result of the
occurrence of external signals qa and qs
 Provision for sequencing consecutive addresses
 Provision for choosing between two addresses as a function of
present values of the status variables S and E.
 Hardware Configuration 21
 The control memory is an 8 word by 14 bit ROM
 The first 9 bits of a microinstruction word contain the control variables that initiate
the micro-operations
 The last five bits provide information for selecting the next address
 CAR holds the address for the control memory
 The register receives an input value when its load control is enabled otherwise it is
incremented by 1
 Bits 10 11 and 12 of a micro instruction contain an address for CAR
 Bits 13 and 14 select an input for a multiplexer
 22

 Bit 1 provides the initial state condition denoted by variable x and also
enables an external address when qs and qa are equal to 1
 When x = 1, the address field of the micro instruction must be 000
 Then if qs =1, address 001 is available at the input of CAR, but if qa=1,
address 010 is applied to CAR
 If both qs and qa are 0, the zero address from bits 10 11 and 12 are applied
to the input of CAR
 In this way control memory stays at address 0 until an external variable is
enabled
 If bits 13 and 14 are 00, a multiplexer input that is equal to 0 is selected
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 The output of the multiplexer is 0 and increment input to CAR is enabled
 This configuration increments CAR to choose the next address in the sequence
 An input of 1 is selected by the multiplexer when bits 13 and 14 are equal to 01
 The output of the multiplexer is 1 and external input is loaded onto the CAR
 Status variable S is selected when bits 13 and 14 or equal to 10
 If S=1, the output of the multiplexer is 1 and address bits of the micro
instructions are loaded into CAR ( provided x=0)
 If S=0, the output of a multiplexer is 0 and CAR is incremented
 With bits 13 and 14 equal to 11, status variable E is selected and the address
field is loaded into CAR. If E=1, but CAR is incremented if equal to 0
 Thus, the multiplexer allows the control to choose between two addresses
depending on the value of the status with selected.
Microprogram control block
diagram 24
Microprogram 25

 Once the configuration of a microprogram control unit is

established, the designer’s task is to generate the microcode for
the control memory
 This code generation is called microprogramming
 It is a process that determines the bit configuration for each and
all words in control memory
 At address 000, we have 0 one for the select field

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This allows an external address to be loaded into CAR if qs or qa is equal to 1.
Otherwise address 000 is transferred to CAR
 In address 001, the microinstruction select field is 01 and address field is 010
 Indicates the microoperation Bs  Bs’ also transfer the address field into CAR
 The next microinstruction out of ROM will be the one stored in address 010. The
select field at address 001 could have been chosen to be 00. This would have
caused CAR to increment and go to address 010
 Inspection of the select field in which 13 and 14 shows that when these two bits
are equal to 01, the address field is next address
 When these two bits are 10, status variable S is selected and when they are 11,
status variable E is selected.
 The last two cases the next address is the one specified in the address field if
the selected status bit=1. If the selected status bit=0, the next address is one
next in sequence because CAR is incremented
Symbolic microprogram for control
memory 27
 28

Binary microprogram for control memory

` 29
 Advantages of Micro programmed control 30
 It simplifies the design of control unit. Thus it is both, cheaper and less error prone
implement.
 Control functions are implemented in software rather than hardware.
 The design process is orderly and systematic
 More flexible, can be changed to accommodate new system specifications or to
correct the design errors quickly and cheaply.
 Complex function such as floating point arithmetic can be realized efficiently
 Disadvantages
 A micro programmed control unit is somewhat slower than the hardwired control
unit, because time is required to access the microinstructions from CM
 The flexibility is achieved at some extra hardware cost due to the control memory
and its access circuitry