Chapter Two

Analysing Radio and

Television Documentary
formats
 2.1.1 Documentary Film Formats
In Bill Nichols’ overview text, ‘Introduction
to Documentary,’ he outlines the six
formats (also referred to as ‘modes’ or
‘types,’) of documentaries. Often a
documentary can overlap into a range of
these categories, and there are few
documentaries that don’t fit into any of
the formats. However, these are the six
primary categories of documentary films:
 Poetic
• This format of documentary originated in
the 1920’s, and they focus on a subject,
made up of experiences and images, in an
artistic style. The style is often abstract and
unstructured in terms of narrative; poetic
documentaries rarely follow conventions,
but rather experiment with content and
visuals. Instead of communicating a truth,
it creates a ‘feeling.’
 Expositional
• Expositional documentaries are usually
considered the most common format — they
juxtapose poetic documentaries, and focus on
educating, persuading and/or informing the
audience of an agenda. This usually uses
‘Voice of God’ narration, commenting over the
top of relevant footage. You’re most likely to
find expositional documentaries on channels
such as The History Channel, or ‘Accident and
Emergency.’
 Participatory
• The documentary filmmaker will work
in unison with the subject/agenda, to
deliver the aim of the documentary
to the audience. This often involves
elements of observation and
exposition, and allows the filmmaker
to subtly question the audience and
hint at a theme, or directly
 Observational
• In this format, the documentary filmmaker will
strive to observe the happenings around them,
rather than becoming part of the documentary and
breaking the ‘outside’ perspective. They originated
in the 1960’s, in attempt to give the audience as
much access to information as possible, without
forcing an opinion on them. Active audiences can
delve into observational documentaries and
conduct their own conclusions from visuals,
semiotics and connotations.
 Performative
• This is an experimental combination of
formats, where the filmmaker will connect
personal experiences with larger historical,
ethical and/or political issues, in order to
construct footage supporting their agenda.
Reflexive
• Similar to participatory documentaries, the
documentary filmmaker will partake in the
on — screen actions; however, they will
make no attempt to discuss an agenda or
theme other than themselves and the act of
making the film.
• Two other sub-formats of documentary that
may be seen on television are:
Docudrama
This is a documentary style which uses reenactment
to recreate events from the past. Often this type of
documentary is based on Kings and Queens of
England.
Docusoap
A documentary which follows a category/group of
people in a certain profession, through their
professional and/or personal lives. It’s similar to
reality television shows, but features unscripted
day-to-day happenings. An example is ‘Airport,’ a
docusoap which documents the workers at London
Heathrow Airport.
2.1.2 Importance of Documentaries
• The documentary film is important
and very crucial to broadcasters and
media professionals for many reasons.
• Firstly, it gives them a chance to use
the broadcast media to explore the
significant issues in their immediate
environments, rather than expanding
their resources on what may be
frivolous and ephemeral.
• Secondly, it provides opportunities for
experimentation and the exercise of one’s
ingenuity not often possible in such formula
obsessed fields as drama and comedy.
• Thirdly, it allows broadcasters the
opportunity to re-experience creativity,
outside the realm of typologies often
associated with specific production
formats. It allows the freedom to explore
the various attributes of performance, as a
communication strategy, designed
specifically for the audiovisual medium.
2.1.4 Story treatment to come up with a good
TV documentary story
• Documentary treatments are between two and
ten pages and help you summarize the essentials
of your project: the budget, the topic, who’s
involved, where filming takes place, and more.
• It’s meant to give investors, collaborators, and
others a window into your perspective. External
stakeholders will be more willing to invest or
support your project in whatever way you need.
• Treatments also help you plan your documentary
as it moves from idea to reality. Your documentary
treatment is essentially a roadmap for how your
project will develop from start to finish.
What’s in a documentary
treatment?
• There are four main parts every
treatment must include:
The logline is two to three sentences
that introduce the documentary. It
needs to grab the reader’s attention,
like an advertising tag line does. The
logline can play up a mystery, be
controversial, or share factual
information.
• The proposal details the scope of the
project, filming schedule, budget,
production plan, and more.
• The synopsis is a general summary of
what the documentary is about and who
(participant-wise) is involved. The synopsis
for the documentary Free Solo is only five
sentences long but it effectively explains
who the filmmaker and photographer are. It
also explains what the documentary is
about, who the main subject is, and why
their story is so unique.
• The treatment body is generally a list of
participants and details their journey, struggles, what
makes these important. The body also outlines where
interviews take place. For example, if your
documentary is about the rise and fall of a public
figure, the body explains which of the subject’s
acquaintances will be interviewed.
• When you combine these four elements, you’re able
to introduce the intended story and get investors,
crew, and participants excited about the
documentary’s development. Well-written
documentary treatments give these people a reason
to get involved.
• You can add more sections based on who you plan to
share the treatment with. For example, include a
distribution plan if you’re presenting to investors.
How a treatment helps your documentary
• Use your documentary treatment as a tool to help
manage the production process as the story evolves.
• With documentary treatments, you can:
• Coherently explain your vision
• Plot the intended trajectory of your documentary
• Strategize who needs to be involved and why
• Proactively plan for shooting and editing needs
• Without a treatment, it’s harder to plan as your
documentary progresses. A documentary outline
explains the story you’re telling, but it’s only a starting
point. A treatment lets you determine which scenes
you’ll need to shoot, set goals for each interview,
create a compelling story, highlight how the
documentary caters to audience interests, and much
more.
 1.2.5 How to write script for a Television documentary?

• Writing the Documentary Script

The actual writing of a documentary script may be a
major or minor job depending on the nature of the
programme. If it is composed of film shot in the field
or interviews with authorities, little work will be
required. The creative work is done mainly by the
production team. In any case not withstanding the
approach taken, the documentary script is a manual
conveying the programme idea. It is a broadcast
script that contains both the dialogue, presentation
style and the instructions that will aid in the
production of the documentary (Nworgu, 2010)
Principles of a Documentary Script
• Script writing entails a creative
presentation of an idea that brings
conceptions to the bare for the mutual
benefit of the source and the receiver.
There are principles to be adopted and
adhered to if the scriptwriter wants to
deliver a script that will vividly tell the
story. These principles as outlined by
Kogah (1999) are as follows:
Gaining Attention:
How can the scriptwriter gain the attention of audience through
the script? It is through depicting the subject of the
documentary in the most powerful terms he/she can device.
He/she must make it vital and meaningful to an average viewer.
There must be an aura of excitement and suspense in the story
line. The teaser technique is frequently used in documentaries
to focus the attention of the audience on the problem. The
teaser may be a brief dramatic scene, or an exciting sequence
excerpted from the body of the documentary.
• It may yet be a statement by a person whose name and face
are attention getting in themselves. Celebrities are not the only
ones who can gain attention. Sometimes, the so-called
“common-man” can do it if he is presented in the right way.
Miscarriage of justice or abuse of human rights, for instance,
can catch attention effectively by opening with a man telling
the audience in a simple yet poignant way that he has spent
ten years in prison for a crime he did not commit.
Introducing Conflict
The documentary form does not provide an obvious opportunity to use
conflict for holding attention as drama does. However, a creative and
an alert scriptwriter can make use of this principle to build interest in
the documentary. One method is to alternate interview with people who
hold clashing opinions on a subject. Another method is to provide face-
to-face confrontation between opponents. This particular method
permits the development of the highest degree of conflict. It is however
not so easy to control when compared to the conflict that arises from
interviews recorded separately.
Introducing Emotional Appeals or Values
The principal means of arousing emotional appeals to a documentary is to
present the issues as they affect individuals. A writer who is content by
merely making general statements is likely to leave his/her audience
involved. A good example would be the ugly incidence of kidnappings
in the south-Eastern part of the country. Instead of mere telling about
the consequences of kidnapping, the scriptwriter can depict it through
the eyes of a survivor who narrowly escaped being killed, even after
the family has paid the demanded ransom. He could be pictured
walking down the scene of the incident where he was kidnapped, while
two or three actors could dramatize how he was kidnapped, while his
voice recorded over the scene, tell the horrible event, his pleas and
cries and moans as they kicked him into their car and zoomed off. It
must be a pathetic and memorable moment.
•  Narration
• Narration in this instance is written after the editing process is completed. This is
because only then can the writer know what material needs narrative support.
Narration can reinforce the effect of a documentary in a number of ways
• (a) it can clarify the meaning of the tape and pictures especially if the film was shot
silent, that is, without sound
• (b) it can provide explanation but the writer should avoid saying too little or saying
too much,
• (c) it may also provide interpretation which enriches the contribution of a filmed or
taped excerpt,
• (d) It serves as the transition from one idea in the documentary to another;
• (e) finally it also enhances the emotional effect of a scene or a taped insert with a
vivid sentence or an appropriate quotation.
• Synopsis versus the Shooting Script
• The synopsis as captured by Owuamalam (2007) could be likened to an abstract which
summarizes the entire creative work, in an impressive form, structure and sequence.
But the shooting script, captures and consists of shot numbering, camera instruction,
action to be formatted and the anticipated accompanying sound.
• “Never Again” is
• a Storyline adapted from Owumalam (2007:137) showing example of a script.
• Here are 7 steps on how to write a
documentary script:
• 1. FINDING THE STORY YOU’RE MEANT TO
TELL
• Why documentary? What are you hoping to convey?
Why are you the perfect person to tell this story?
These are all questions you answer in a pitch in
order to be green lit by producers and executive
producers. Answering them first for yourself can
lead you to a story you feel passionate about and
are thus able to see through the long process of
documentary filmmaking. Once answered, you
begin the arduous task of looking deeper into
material that will lead you to the story and
ultimately, the script.
2.RESEARCH, RESEARCH, RESEARCH
• Research is the most important phase of Pre-production
and is the foundation of your script. Often, when we
begin looking at a topic, others have come before us.
This means that we need to dig deeper into the subject
in order to not only inform but also surprise the audience.
This surprise is key to creating an interesting story. If
you’re looking for experts, one of the ways to find them
is to search for books on the topic and then approach the
authors. They may simply become “advisors” – people
who can provide key background information and fact-
checkers. They may also turn into interviewees, on-
camera experts who elevate the believability factor.
Whichever role they assume, their input is important to
create the skeletal form that you then flesh out with
“story” as you develop your outline.
• 3. BLUEPRINT YOUR DOCUMENTARY
• This is the time to organize and plan how the story will
be transmitted to your audience. This can be in the
form of an outline most commonly expressed in a set
of “sequences”. These are detailed scenes to show
how the film may play out. When you have this
sequence outline clear in your head, shooting the
frame is much easier because you already know what
you want. This sequence outline follows the natural
narrative spine of storytelling which is broken into acts
which culminate in the overall message that you are
trying to convey. There may be some tweaking along
the way, but the sequence outline is there as a guide.
4. WRITING THE SCRIPT
• The first column is optional and is used by some
filmmakers as a guide to the arc of the narrative. Video and
Audio columns are the standard and they are formatted so
that the visuals line up with the audio (interview,
narration, music, etc.) that plays over them. You must work
backwards. It is the only way to write a documentary
script. Once you have collected your research, data, and
interviews, only then can you write the script. Without
research, it would be impossible to conceive what an
interviewee is going to say and how that ties into your
message. Once you have all of the facts and materials,
then you can sit down and write the script and voice-overs.
• 5. COMPEL YOUR VIEWER
• Viewers want to connect with your project.
Zeroing in on protagonists to highlight
compelling personal stories will enthrall
viewers. Emotionally, your viewers will open up
and understand the complexity of the issue
while making the issue entirely relatable. Every
viewer wants to be transported somewhere
else, look through fresh eyes, learn something
new, and then be motivated and moved by this
information.
• 6. DECLARE YOUR POINT OF VIEW
• Presenting the facts and reality isn’t always cleaning cut and
unbiased. That isn’t to say that directors and producers spin
a project a certain way but there is information that stays in a
documentary and information that is cut. So, what is it that
you want your documentary to transmit? When your
thematic message is well-defined, putting the entire script
and production together is much easier and it is clearer to
the audience regardless of whether or not they agree. They
can still connect because of the clarity of the message. At the
very least, the audience is given something to think about
moving forward. As a director/writer/producer, you can be
flexible and allow your story to unfold even if it’s not in the
precise direction that you thought it would go.
7. FINESSE YOUR PROJECT
• Be thorough with your writing and voice-overs. Writing and rewriting the
script is part of the process as you continue to define your message and
refine the story. If you are using a narrator, you may have to readjust to
your narrator’s style. Sometimes while you are fact checking, there may
be some discrepancies so you want to make sure that everything you
are presenting to the viewer is accurate and reflected in the rewriting
process.
• Documentaries aren’t an observation of humanity, but rather an
opening door into our nature, into what drives us, what makes us fill
with joy and weep with sorrow. Documentaries are real, with real people
and dealing with real issues that are powerful and hit us at our core. Let
your writing reflect those deep, moving messages and capture your
audience emotionally.
• Just like everything else, writing the right documentary script can only
come after hours of training and practice, including feedback from
professionals. Find out more about how you can gain that experience at
NYFA’s Documentary Filmmaking Workshops.
• Interested in learning more about the craft of creating excellent
documentaries? Check out NYFA’s documentary filmmaking programs to
find the best hands-on, intensive program for you.
Documentary Structure the Three-Act Documentary
Documentary structure is often determined by the subject matter of the film, but in
general a documentary is made up of the beginning, the middle and the end,
sometimes referred to as the "three-act structure."
Three-Act Documentary Structure
Beginning | Act One
The beginning of the documentary needs to capture the audience's attention. This is
where you set the tone for the whole movie and create curiosity in the viewer's
mind to make them want to keep watching. You want to set up some kind of
conflict, problem or unusual situation that keeps the audience mesmerized to the
story wanting to know more.
The beginning is more or less a teaser for the whole movie. It sets up the questions
that the rest of the movie will answer.
Traditionally, "Act One" is where the main character (the protagonist/hero) is
introduced and then confronted with a challenge or obstacle that is keeping them
from reaching their goal. The dramatic question should be framed in such a way
that it sets up the challenge faced by the protagonist: Will X make it out alive, Will
Y get the girl, Will Z catch the killer?
An example of this is the documentary "An Inconvenient Truth". We are introduced to
Al Gore whose greatest desire is to reverse climate change, but it is a formidable
task. How's he going to do it?
Middle | Act Two
This is the main guts of your story. The middle section is divided into numerous scenes that build on each
other to reveal your story. These segments don't necessarily go in chronological order.
"Going back in time" is an effective filmmaking technique that can keep the audience guessing.
Each scene often has it's own beginning/middle/end. These mini-scenes, patched together, create your story.

Traditionally, Act Two is where the protagonist attempts to resolve the problem(s) and comes against
numerous obstacles - often facing an ever worsening situation. This is where the tension builds and the
audience wonders how the protagonist is ever going to resolve the issues/challenges before them.
End | Act Three
The ending of the documentary usually brings some kind of resolution to the questions and conflict
established at the beginning of the film. It is often helpful when writing your documentary script to
consider how the documentary will end before trying to write the beginning and the middle. This may
seem counter intuitive, but a good way to think about this is to imagine you are getting on your bike. You
need to know your destination in advance to know which roads to ride to get there. Otherwise, you will
be lost!
Traditionally, Act Three is where all the tensions come to a head and the main obstacle/question posed in Act
One is answered and resolved.
Why teach radio/TV documentary?=communication
• Link b/n Journalism…communication…..media
studies areas
• As a tool for development communication or
communication for development. (IEC-BCC-
CFSC…..3Ds (Dev, Diverse, Dialogue)
• It is a factual film /non-fiction film that gives
message on values of social, culture, science and
arts and humaities.
 1.2.What is documentary?
• In Documentary film making the issue of realism is
important. As its name suggests a documentary seeks to
document real life. It attempts to replicate experience in
the world in a naturalistic and realistic fashion.
• So to some extent , we assume the effectiveness of a
documentary film by the ability to convince us that what
we are seeing is real.
• Most importantly, documentaries delve into a non-fictional
world with real events, real issues, real conflict, real people
and real emotions. Everything seen and heard on screen is
grounded in accuracy and has no element of fiction.
• There are different types of documentaries,
but one common feature to all documentaries
is the fact that like all media products they
have to be constructed. This construction
should make the text seem natural and
realistic, but the same process of selection and
shaping has to be done as in fictional test/film.
• Documentary subject is paramount:
This is b/c of the subject matter
which many of documentary films
are celebration of the lives of
ordinary people. The artifice of doc
film making is rendered subsidiary to
the truth being told on the screen
• Of course there are some that use the
reconstruction of events where the original
footage is either non-existence or needs to be
supplemented by more dramatic sequences
• There are also examples of drama
documentaries in which real life events are
dramatized to enable audience to relive the
experiences
 What is TV documentary
• Documentary inspires movement and action.
At the very heart of documentary, there is an
issue and a message at hand. The passing on
of this message to the audience is usually the
reason that the film was made in the first
place.
• Documentaries have long been used as an
instrument to inspire change in their
audience, be it social change or inner change.
• There are a number of issues that need to be
explored in relation to the nature of
documentary and of realism. There are also
ethical and ideological issues to be
considered.
• If documentary seeks to show us some kind of
truth, the process of construction is obviously
going to represent the truth from a specific
view point.
• For example, the use of Voice-over narrator is
a powerful device not only in determining the
response of the audience to a documentary
but also in positioning the audience to such a
way as to limit the readings that are available.
• part of the popularity of the documentary as
a genre is the way in which it allows the
audience to get in side other people’s lives.
 What is TV documentary?
• In General: Documentary reports facts as they
are from several angles and asks the audience
to make their own judgment. Program
producer has a firm aim of the program in
guiding the audience to see the facts of a
subject.
 questions
• In the section on narrative we emphasized the importance of
conflict. Consider the narrative construction of a documentary, ( the
group topic that we did in class).
• How has a conflict been presented here? Do you think the conflict
has emerged naturally or do you think it may have been
contrived/artificial, unnatural/ for dramatic effect?
• Remember narrative or story telling the important function of
interpreting the world and shaping it into a comprehensible and
comfortable form that allows us to see the forces of light and dark,
and good and evil, battle against each other. Usually we are
rewarded with the confronting outcome of triumph of good and
reassurance of an equilibrium in which all will live happily ever after.
 1.3. Styles of documentary
The three major formats:
1.Historical/reenactment/Documentary drama : some
narration that links the actors( professional actors)
2.Production of the behavioral documentary or
documentary of a unique event or actuality .This is a
mix of narrative commentary/VO and talking
heads/interview/ using non professional
characters/actors/:
3. Talking head: sometimes only taking head/with no
script/but some shots shown in the talk
 Styles of documentary
From the behavioral type, different types of
categorizing documentaries involve
1. Expository documentary: It is authoritative
voice over commentary combined with
descriptive and informative images or videos.
2. Observational documentary: presents slice of
life. Documentary maker seeks not to intervene
in the filmed events. He or she seeks to observe
unfolding /RELATING OR TELLING / events.
3. Interactive documentary: Makes the documentary-
maker’s presence prominent and he/she interacts with
people and events in documentary.
4. Reflexive documentary: Documentary maker
attempts to expose to viewer the conventions of
documentary representation with effect of challenging
documentary’s apparent inability to reveal the truth.
5. Per formative documentary: Aims to represent the
world indirectly by evoking/inducing mood and
atmosphere usually found in feature film.
 Styles of documentary
Another classification:
• Expository versus observational
• Analysis/issue versus story
• Context versus individual
 Styles of documentary
Journalistic documentaries :
• normally emphasize reality, facts and fairness-
so most of these tend to be constructed and
scripted. The reporter often has a major role,
appearing in the documentary doing stand-
ups, asking questions and sometimes being
filmed as part of the action.
 Styles of documentary
• There are still several varieties of constructed
documentary styles.
• Investigative documentary
• Analytical
• Biographical/autobiographical
…Endurance/Haile G/selassie
• So-called reality TV documentary
 Styles of documentary
Hampe has another major divide between
anthropological (current human behavior) and
historical (bringing events to life)
Michael Renovo has four modalities about
documentaries:
• record, reveal, or preserve
• persuade or promote: promotional Doc
• analyze or interrogate
 2.1. pre-production
From pre-production/planning to post production -
scripting and narration
Idea---research and make a specific idea….write a story
line/treatment…outline or prepare the first sequence
structure or pre-shooting script….schedule the shooting
program period….shoot…come and preview the
footage/rushes, select the best ones, capture and…
rough edit..collect comments..prepare shot list…write
post production script using the shot list…..read the
/script/narration….record and & do final edit for the
program( video and narration).
 2. Production process/steps
There are three stages of documentary
production:
2.1.Pre-production/planning :pre-shooing script
2.2. production/recording: audio and video
scenes
2.3.post production/Editing: post shooting script
writing
 2.1.1. topic/story idea
Ideas/topics from where? Idea emanate from:
• problem observed /problem situated idea/.
Every film, especially a documentary, has a
‘value’. This could be social, political, historical,
philosophical, artistic or of some other kind.
• An Idea that Interest you and sharing that to
audiences
• Planned and budgeted -from the industry
pre-production/Planning:
• This part of the process can be quite worrying
to start with. You have to produce a piece of
work that is going to be marked and looked at
by external moderators. stic exercise. But
three interlinked points require investigation
and decision –making: the medium, the
audience and the subject matter
1. The medium:
• First find out what media you are allowed to work in
and what sort of equipment is available to you .
• Which media have you had experience of working in
before
• Which did you think most comfortable and confident
with?
• What media have you studied previously
• Once you decided on the medium you will need to
consider the next aspect of practical production process
2. The audience;
• What is your target audience? Market research is
important. This is linked with the medium you use
and the subject matter, but you must attempt to
• Identify the target audience
• Research their likes, dislikes and media consumption
habits. Demographic and psychographic studies of
audiences are important. But there two systems:
content based and needs assessment.
3. The subject matter/topic/idea:
• The subject matter of your production must inevitably
linked with its target audience. And so must obviously
appeal to its intended audience and be in an
appropriate medium for this audience. You also have
to be realistic about the time, money and energy that
you have. Some subject matter will be unrealistic to
produce if you don’t have the budget and time and
energy. How many people are to work on your
production?
• A good deal of planning is that a researcher to
determine what he/she will say and do on camera.
Some people on camera will either freeze or
rumble on for hours, some prompting as to the
most appropriate responses may well be necessary.
• Prepare or set up some activity in order to add
visual interest. Note how often people in
documentaries are filmed undertaking some
domestic chore while their voice is played over the
action.
• The second issue with shooting documentary is the
extent to which the camera itself necessarily intrudes
and determines how people will respond and react.
Act naturally, as usual but not differently when filmed.
So the producer need to prepare the pre-shoot or
shooting script, which
• It consolidates research and outlines the film’s story
providing a visual guideline for the shoot/recordings.
It uses the same format as post-shoot script: two
columns.
 Documentary differs from feature story in
POV
Determine the Point of view/POV/:
• POV is the angle/idea taken to look at the event
and character, their interactions with each other
and the environment in the film
• The producer’s choice of a point of view makes
an enormous difference on how the audience
views the film.
• Who or whatever’s POV is shown is the person
or thing that is telling the story to the audience.
 What is POV and why need it?
• The way in which the producer/scriptwriter chooses
to tell the story through focused POV is called a
narrative. It is a combination of audiovisual
elements , story elements and is when a particular
entity’s POV uses various elements to tell the story.
• In other words, POV gives or drives the narrative.
Once the POV of a sequence is/has been decided
then the shots are taken from that POV the sound is
tailored towards it and the information given to the
audience is limited by it.
 POV/ point of view
• Some consider that documentary as the
highest form of news and information art.
Documentary is not only giving information
but presents a POINT OF VIEW /POV/.
• A good documentary may have a profound
influence on social, political, economic
development and even legislation in a city,
region or country
 What is POV and why need it?
• A story is told in many different ways –
through visuals, sound, words, characters,
events etc. However, the producer must make
the decision early on as to who will tell the
story to the audience. This decision then binds
the story to the limited experience of that
entity.
 2.1.2.Researching the topic
The strategy for research
• Each producer has his own sources and
approaches for gathering information and may
use the same tried and tested ways
throughout their careers.
• A few places to start are: Print/archive
research, location visit/research and
interview research.
 2.1.2.Researching the topic
The strategy for research
• Each producer has his own sources and
approaches for gathering information and may
use the same tried and tested ways
throughout their careers.
• A few places to start are: Print/archive
research, location visit/research and
interview research.
 1. Print Research:
• There are millions of places to look in print: Newspapers, books,
magazines, journals, digests, reports, archives, diaries…the list is
endless. The producer must decide which one will be suitable for
subject-related information gathering and then physically get hold
of the required publication. The usual places to go for finding print
material are libraries, bookstores, institutions and organizations
with archives and, of course, the internet.
• Other places could be antique bookstores, publishing houses and
academic institutions. People also keep print material in their
houses and that out-of-print, obscure thesis you were looking for
could be lying in your neighbor’s house so it never hurts to ask
around.
• Unless your film is about something extremely specific, chances are you’ll
have a stack of a hundred relevant publications lying in your house waiting
to be read. Chances also are you’ll probably not have enough time to read all
of them.
• The art of scouring through large amounts of print material quickly can only
be picked up over time, however a novice producers should try and train his
eye to skim over words and stop to read bits of text which occur to him as
something he could put in his script or which sounds interesting and should
be kept aside.
• It also helps to keep a look out for ‘keywords’ or words that strike a chord
because of their meaning. These words can be used later on in the script, if
you are going to write narration.
• In addition, you may be exploring the idea of including visuals of print
material in your film as well, in which case you must select and isolate this
material carefully for filming later.
2. Field Research:
• Since film is a visual medium, it is integral that a producer get an
accurate picture of the visual information in the film. He could go
to the various locations in which the film will be shot, or to
locations where events took place earlier or will take place in the
future. The producer could attend related events or even put
himself into places where the people in the film will be or would
have been.
• He could even go to museums, art galleries or any kind of public
viewing space where he could gather information. The ‘field’ exists
only in relation to the subject of the film and therefore the options
are endless and should be visited upon the producer’s discretion.
• Once the producer reaches a location, it is important to look out
for things which might be relevant to the script. You could track
events as they happened or look for clues that could reveal facts
much like a detective. How to gather field material when on
location is subjective to the film, but the producer must keep look
out for all things visual that can be incorporated as images within
the script. The culture of the area should be learnt, the people
met, the details noted.
• Once you gather this knowledge, you must keep it aside for future
reference. It also helps when on a shooting location, to note
things like where the sunlight comes from at what time and what
the sounds are heard around the area. These little details will
help you design the script in a more artistic and insightful way.
3. Interview Research:
• Nine times out of ten, a producer will be called upon to write
a script about something he knows nothing about. Factual
knowledge can usually be easily attained from print and field
research; however the producer must also gather
perspective. Not one but many. The best way to gain
perspective is to speak to people directly and indirectly
connected with the subject. Films are a medium for people,
by people and therefore a human perspective is imperative
for any film.
• Interview research, which is basically meeting people and
asking them questions, is a must for every film.
 2.1.3.Writing a story
line/treatment/proposal
Structuring the Proposal/treatment into pictures
1. A story line in brief: A summary of your idea. Two
sentences only. Why people should watch your program/
2. Story line-expanded: Detailed information about your
story. Half a page about the content.
3. Style of documentary: What sort of approach is your
documentary? biographical, analytical , dramatic, etc
4. Picture sequences: list he main sequences/locations to
shoot
5. Interviewees: list the main interviewees and the brief
specific points you intend them to make( for feature/doc)
 Planning with a tretament;
Why do a treatment?
• You have chosen your subject
• You have done the research and recce/checking the
technical details)
• You have decided on an approach or a combination
of approaches. Why don’t you just make the
arrangements for the shoot and turn up and shoot
what is there. You need a structure and discipline to
make a successful film. That is what the treatment
helps to provide.
• It is basically the list of the events or
sequences in the order that you think appear
in the completed film.
• Put a short description of event or sequence
in the left hand column and summary of the
commentary, interviews and other sound in h
the column on the right.
 2.2. Production/recording
Production/shooting
• Explain the objectives of the program to the
camera person. Discuss the details with the
team members.
• Interview people with clear knowledge of why
you ask such questions and in what part of the
program it will be used
• Shoot based on the outline you made as a result
of your research. Be flexible to unfolding events.
• Remember the simple rules: when shooting go
from WS to MS and then to CU. Set up/WS/ for
all new locations.
• Hold shots still for 10 seconds.
• Use tripod, Let people go out of frame. Watch
the bright light, take cutaways, be careful about
sounds, and use headphones when shooting
 3.Essential elements of production

3.1. Visual elements while recording

3.2 Sound elements while recording
3.3. Lighting element while recording
3.4. Interviewing and type of questions
3.5. Story elements( beginning, middle, ending)
 Production
• Prepare an outlines (which could be used as
shooting scripts), a shooting script made up
of the best combination.
• Organize the sequence of taping during your
production time. B/c you are shooting
segments with a single camera, you must
develop a shooting schedule that accounts
camera set ups, location, performers, and the
order of sequence in which you record them
3.1.Visual Element
• The visual elements of film, or what the audience ‘sees’ on screen is
one of the most integral aspects of writing a script. It’s important to
understand, firstly, how a film is composed structurally from its
smallest component. In a TV program , this is usually a shot.
The Shot
• A shot is a single ‘take’ on an image. It starts and finishes at a ‘cut-
point’, which is an editing break in the image. A shot is not defined
by any particular image, action or event that takes place on screen. It
is more a technical concept. You can have a single shot of a man
picking up a paper or two or three of the same thing. It’s basically
what occurs between two breaks in editing. In a film a shot is the
smallest visual unit of structure.
The Sequence
• A sequence is a collection of shots put together that tell a story
continuously.
• A sequence is an autonomous piece of the larger story of the film.
An entire film is made up of a series of sequences, which can be of
varying durations, and are connected to each other in some way.
• Each sequence has a visual and audio aspect to it. If a shot is made
up of action, a sequence is made up of events. Events mean change
in action. These events are built up by the action in the shots to
make some sort of sense to the audience and pass along
information to them. Sequences usually fall into one of two
categories:
Visual element:
1. Basic camera shots:
Ex LS, LS, MS, CU, EXCU
Camera sequences: LS-MS-CU
2. Camera movements: pan-left-to- right, zoom-in-zoom-
out, tilt-up-tilt down
3. Camera angles: Normal angle, High angle, low angle,
4. Continuity and axis
5. Cutaways shots
6. Interview shots
 Production
Camera shots:
• Three shots from the basis of all camera work- the long shot,
medium shot, and close up. For example for screening a person
• The long shot (LS/WS) takes in the whole person from head to
feet.
• The medium long shot (MLS) cuts in closer, revealing head to
just below the knees
• The medium close-up (MCU) gives head and shoulders
• The close up(CU) shows head only
• The big close up (BCU) show fills the screen with the feature of
the face.
 Production
• Some basic camera positions and their functions
• Long shot/Wide shot: Sometimes called establishing shot that shows
the environment, it provides a general view of the subject and setting;
establishes the scene by showing viewers all the visual elements in the
scene; when applicable, shows how the size of the subject relates to
other elements in the scene.
• Medium shot: provides a clear view of subject and eliminates
unnecessary elements and background; covers about two thirds of a
subject from headroom to knees of the subject standing.
• Close-up: concentrates on subject , excludes all other details of the
background
• Medium long shot: closer than a long shot and includes more detail
than a medium shot.
 Production
• Medium close-up; covers subject approximately from elbows to
head room when sitting; shows good facial detail and some
background; the preferred shot for newscasters, it is considered the
most comfortable distance for viewers watching a subject who is
talking directly to camera.
• Extreme long shot: shows all background and details of a scene;
more comprehensive than a basic long shot
• Extreme close-up: limited to the subject’s face, creates a sense of
immediacy and intimacy and has great impact on the viewer.
• Objective: Camera records image from the observer’s view point.
• Subjective: Camera records what the subject sees, shots of
equipment operations processes may be taken fro high angle over
the subjects shoulder.
 Production
Camera positions: The relative height of the camera to the
scene.
• High angle/the top shot/ gives a bird’s eye view. The
camera is above the subject the subject assumes
exaggeratedly small
• The high shot/areal view looks down on the scene from
front.
• The low angle. Low shot has the camera looking up.
• The normal angle or level shot in line with the subjects eye
view, eye level.
• Low level shot takes a worm’s –eye view.
 Production
3.2 Sound Element
• Narration/ commentary / Voice over:
• Talking heads, interviews sound
• Music( as background and as a theme)
• Ambiance sound/natural sound
• Sound effects, Silence
 Production
3.3.Light Element
• Natural light and color temperature-
outdoor: morning session, and
afternoon session
• Artificial light indoor production: key
light, fill light, back light
• Reflector (during field outdoor
production
3.4.Story Element:
3.4.1.The beginning: grab the attention of the
viewers and listeners
3.4.2.The body: actions events, justifications,
descriptions, explanations interviewee ‘s point of
view etc
3.4.3.Ending: depends on the type of program.
Something the audience take home, of fill the
gap
Look at any story, movie plo, joke, song, yarn etc
no matter what culture, wthat language they all
have these three element
• Subject…….somebody
• Action……doing something
• Motive…….because
• A storyline that really grips us usually involves
the subject dealing with the conflict or
change. So in looking to focus your story make
sure you identify the source of conflict or
tension, the obstacles to overcome , the
journey to be taken.
• Focus/theme should not be confused with the
topics ofr the subject matter
• To say focus of a story is “about cuts in welfare payments” is
not specific enough to be useful.
• That certainly is a topic-but it is definitely not a focus.
• What aspect f the story do we want to tackle ? How can we
make the story/issue understandable/? Is there a human
face/story that viewers could connect with? Who wins/ who
loses? What change during the course of the report/
• Focus is a tool for determining exactly what aspect of the
topic the story will concentrate on, the conflict or change
that is involved and who is the best carrier of the story line?
• At its simplest narrative is a sequence of events
with beginning, a middle, and an end. In this
sense narrative is endemic to science itself-the
creation of universe, the life history of a butter fly,
and the action of antibody on a pathogen are all
essentially narrative events.
• Broadly speaking a scientific paper is also a
narrative, with a hypothesis( the beginning),
determining methods( the middle) that lead to
results and conclusions( the end).
• Narrative or storytelling, performs the
important functions of interpreting of the
world and shaping it into a comprehensible
and comfortable form that allows us to see
the forces of light and dark, and good and
evil, battle against each other..
• Narrative lays an important role in our growing up and
consequently in forming our social values. Clearly narrative
is a powerful force not only to help us make sense of our
world but also with the potential to influence behavior.

• Watch on television a children’s program that involves

some element of story telling. Paying particular attention
to the narrative, consider how conflict with the narrative is
developed. What devices are used to indicate to the
audience where their sympathies are expected to lie
between the characters?
 Opening scenes in documentary film

• Title of the documentary: short, memorable, represent the story

• Background music: that goes with the story, pronounced at the
beginning, (middle), or all the way, and at the end, credit caption
• Montage opening: series of short assembled shots from the body
of the of the program; film with b/g music and title
• Opening with master shot: areal long shot of scene with b/g
music and title
• Journalistic approach/stand-up: background shot, with title,
one person as reporter stand up, VO/narrator and also he/she
would be seen at the middle of the story bridging &
interviewing, and at the end with stand up concluding the story.
 Narrative –story telling
The story and its structure: Like in all other art
forms, film story has three broad structural
elements:
• A beginning
• A middle
• An end
3.4.1. The beginning
• The beginning sets the audience up for all the
events about to occur in the film. It sets the tone
and mood for the film and hints at surprises that
lie ahead by raising the right questions in the
minds of the audience.
• In documentary, the beginning always addresses
the issue at hand and introduces the subject to the
audience. A good beginning does these things:
Story structure: These sequences must be
related to each by Concept, idea, thought,
Action, Character, Setting and Mood in order to
have a good flow of the film
Begin
ning Middle End
A good beginning does these things:
1. Creates an audiovisual ‘hook’ to catch the audience’s interest. A ‘hook’ is
something that demands attention and places the film contextually in space and
time. It sets up the flavor of things to come, both in a story and audiovisual sense.
2. Establishes the ‘core assertion’ of the film, which is the point the filmmaker wants
to make through the documentary and the message he wants to communicate to
the audience. It is this message around which the entire film is built going forward.
3. Creates curiosity among the audience. A good beginning reveals the subject and
issue at hand to the audience in such a way that they become keen to see the
events that follow in the film.
4. Shows change or the promise of change, which is one of the inherent elements of
story and of film.
5.Creates the element of consequence, which is one event leading to another. Cause
and effect will direct the audience and increase their understanding of the subject
matter.
3.4.2. The Middle
• The key to a good middle is structure. The producer
must ensure that the middle of the film presents a chain
of logic designed to prove its core assertion.
• Each event and action must be pertinent and in keeping
with the subject and tone of the film. The issues at hand
must be kept in strict focus and events must be
arranged in such a way to ensure that the film keeps
moving along and progressing. This ‘tight’ structure will
result in a dynamic and interesting middle.
Story structure: These sequences must be
related to each by Concept, idea, thought,
Action, Character, Setting and Mood in order to
have a good flow of the film
Begin
ning Middle End
• Middle sequences must be related to each
other and unified as a whole in order to give
the film a flow.
• The producer/scriptwriter can use the
following criteria to relate and unify them:
1. Concept, idea, thought – The most common link between sequences is
subject matter. Each sequence is related with the others through the
common issues it deals with.
2. Action – Sequences can be related to each other through the kinds of
events and actions they portray.
3. Setting – Many of the sequences may share a common location and
many more may have different locations within a common, larger setting.
4. Character – Sequences in a film often share the same characters and are,
therefore, unified by these common characters.
5. Mood – Sequences can often relate to each other by having a common
flavor or mood. For example, one sequence could show slum streets
around the world, another could show the defeated faces of
employment seekers. The two sequences are related by the gravity and
desolation of their mood.
• A good middle consists of good
sequences, which also have their own
beginnings, middles and ends. Within
the sequences, the flow of events
determines these parameters. There
could many types of sequences within a
film, ranging from the dramatic ones
that decide the film’s direction, to the
sequences that lead up to and follow
after the dramatic ones.
• The producer must allot a particular message
for each sequence and ensure that each one
has an impact on its own. Then, he can
explore the order in which he will place them
all depending on flow of information and the
gradual increase of impact.
The Elements of Pacing - Rhythm and Tempo
• Rhythm is set by the length of sequences. It is important
to vary the length of sequences and not keep them long
or repetitive.
• Most sequences are visually expressive in one location
within two or three minutes. A sequence held too long
in one place becomes redundant and loses audience
attention. Tempo is the level of activity within a
sequence. A person staring out of a window
contemplating life may have a low tempo; a riot will
naturally have a high tempo.
Transitions:
• Every story needs to have a seamless progression between
sequences for the entire thing to work. For this, it needs to
have something to link the tail of each sequence to the
head of the next sequence. Generally, we find this linking
element in one of two possibilities: what the two
sequences have in common, or what they have in
opposition.
• A ‘Transition’ is something held in common by two
sequences or counter pointed between them. This
common or counter element can be many different things:
 Transitions techniques b/n shots and
sequences .
• situation
• A sound
• An idea
• A word:
• An action: and electronic devices:
• Cut, Dissolve , fade in, fade out, mix, wipe
3.3. The End:
• The end is when the film concludes with a
conclusion, usually a reiteration of the core
assertion of the film. In many films, this is
done by hammering home the assertion with
a ‘key feature’, which could be a anything from
a phrase to a visual, or many visuals, to one
last event that sets the impression to be left
on the audience.
Story structure: These sequences must be
related to each by Concept, idea, thought,
Action, Character, Setting and Mood in order to
have a good flow of the film
Begin
ning Middle End
Open End
• An open ending is usually one which leaves
one, some or many questions unanswered
and some emotions unfulfilled. This type of
ending relies heavily on audience imagination
to fill in the gaps once the lights have come
on. The ‘open’ implication doesn’t mean the
film finishes in the middle, leaving everything
hanging unresolved.
 4. Post production:
• Viewing the rushes/footages
• Preparing EDSL/Editing Shot List/ and
capturing all
• Edit/technology, and art of editing( continuity,
complexity, context, ethical dilemma
• TV script format
• Writing Narration/commentary
 Script Format
No Video/shots Shot time Audio/narration
with/description
Opening scene 30-45 b/g music
seconds
Intro Sequence one

Sequence two

Sequence three

Sequence four
End sequence
 How to write commentary
1. Think about commentary/narration and make
notes while planning the video, shooting and
editing. Have the video first on the screen and
let the commentary grow with the program so
that when you come to write it, you have a list
of points to make , a few sections that already
complete and detailed notes for the past.
Writing then becomes editing and polishing,
rather than a search fo inspiration
2. Analyze shots and sequences:
• If you haven’t already done so, take a step
back from the program and decide which shots
need commentary and which shots don’t.
Writing ‘wall to wall”(covering every shot b/n
sound bites with words) is not the objective.
• Nonstop words are tiring for viewers. Pictures
need to breath and viewers need to get their
breath back.
• Leave key parts of shots clear(usually when
things are happening)
• Avoid writing over close ups particularly of
people talking
• Don’t write over loud noises (eg explosions) or
mood creating sound effects (eg dog barking)
• Writing to edited video.
• Emotional pertinence – When watching a
sequence, the audience take in different
aspects of it. The producers need emphasize
emotional details or triggers which will
provide the desired emotional response from
the audience.
 narration
• The way in which the scriptwriter chooses to
tell the story through focused POV is called a
Narrative. This literally means someone or
something is narrating the story.
• first person Narration and third person
narration, point of view is common in
documentary.
• Keeping narration simple is the final challenge.
Big words and fancy sentences are lost on an
audience that has to keep track of multiple
elements coming toward them at the same
time. In fact, a verbose narration only makes
the film harder for them to follow.
• A good narration is precise and simple and
works in tune with the other elements of the
film without trying to be magnificent.
 Mini Radio documentary
The mini-documentary/feature radio is:
• It is a prerecorded item. Collect information
about the topic, write the proposal and record
the necessary radio phonic elements.
• The mini-feature/documentary treats one
subject per program. Its story is around or in
one person/individual, organization, event
• Covers different aspects and points of view
 Mini Radio documentary
• Preproduction step is the same as for TV
documentary production
• What makes radio documentary/radio mini-
feature is that it uses the essential radio
phonic elements.
 Mini Radio documentary
It uses a variety of following radio phonic
elements:
…..Clips
….Music
…..Sound
…..Vox pop
……Quotes linked by the narrator
 Mini Radio documentary
Voice clips: authenticity, information, variety of
opinions, emotions, credibility
Music: Serve as a bridge, creates a mood,
supports the message
Sound effects: appeals to imagination, conjure up
reality, set the scene,
Narration: smooth flow, cohesion
Narrator: tells the story, guide, no comment,
/facts, descriptions, context/
 Mini Radio documentary
Vox pop: sounds of the people/public
Why vox pop?: to reflect public opinion, to liven
up your program, to get a voice to the voiceless.
Which topic?: controversial, of general interest,
relevant to today’s issues.
How?: short and snappy, contrasting opinions, 2-3
times as many voices as needed, random
selection of interviews, contrast of male/female
voices, one clear question.
 Mini Radio documentary
Practical hints: stay with one question, be
impartial, offer anonymity, introduce yourself,
introduce your topic, check your equipment
Arrange in a build-up of tempo/pace/ emotion
and message
Have a strong beginning, end with a bang.
 Story telling
Think of headline:
• Main character/protagonist/: main character
• Problem /Antagonist/:rival, adversary
• Narrator: which perspective will you choose to
tell the story? Protagonist /character, hero ,
antagonist/rival, observer, analyst,
commentator
• Activate emotions: Activate the sense!/hear,
see, taste, touch, smell/
Brainstorming for helpful hints:
• Incorporate the audiences
• Arouse emotions
• Topics needs to grip
• Voice/tone
• Build suspense
• Timing
• Music
• Be ware of the audience’s age.
 Example:Coming up a storyline for a mini-
documentary :I am not alone
Effects(rain)
Narrator
Clip/Abebe-young drug addict, get wet and not caring/
Narrator
Clip/Abebe’s mother, worried about her son’s addiction
Music/sow bed/
Narrator
Clip/Abebe’s girl friend talking about break-up that he beat her.
Narrator:
Vox pop(young people concerned)
Music bed
Vox pop (concerned parents)
Music bed
Clip(govt official)
Tormenting sound:
----end….
Tension in the story line: Abebe’s drug addiction is ruining his relationship with his family and
friends. Questions from audience should we hear more from Abebe. Should the narrator
come in again towards this end?
 Brain storming
“More chats Please”
Structure of the program could be:
Sound effect: street ambience
Clip: young beggar
Narrator: Why chats
Vox pop: Reason why youth chew chats
Narrator: the effects of chats
Clip: medical expert, medical effect
Sound effect: birds, goats, cows/transition to countryside/
Narrator: why people grow chats/economic reasons/
Vox pop: reasons from farmers
Narrator: what the solution is
Vox pop: solution from parents, peasants, teachers, youth
Clip: beggar
Tension in story line : chats is addictive and can ruin lives, but farmers grow it in order to
survive/
“The street angel”
Narration: Description of time, weather, environment
Sound effects: church bell
Narration: people going to church, young yohannes wakes up on street
Sound effects: busy street noises in Addis
Narration:Describes yohannes/from rural area, innocent…presence of drugs
Clip: yohannes why he is on the street what his problem is
Sound effect; church music
Vox pop:church not doing enough to help youths from adicts
Sound effects: church music
Narration; stand of church on drugs
Clip; priest say no to drugs!!
Narration; yohannes still on the road
Sound effect; busy street noise
Narration; sun setting, yohannes still innocent, will he still be innocent tomorrow? Will he get into drugs?
Tension; the drug problem is in front of the church but the church is not doing anything to solve the
problem. Questions from audience: Is this being too heavy-handed on the church? Find out through
interview with the church and adjust storyline if necessary
 Presentation Techniques
V= Value your voice
O= Open up your posture
I = Improve your articulation
C = Connect with your listener
E = Exercise, read and record
S = Start with smiling
 Summary of the Dev communication theories and
Documentary programs critiques by (SACOM )SOUTH
AFRICAN Communication association group:
Paradigm: Modernization
Origin: US foreign aid polices of 1950s and 1960s
Comm. style: Stimulus response with message intended
to elicit responses in the from of informed behavior
replacing customary ignorant behavior: BCC
Doc style: linear narrative, voice of god, how to
instruction film, heavy reliance on foreign or native
expert voices
Effectiveness: almost a failure in Africa, Perpetuates
dependency.
 Summary
Paradigm: Dependency
Origin: critiques of modernization by South & central America
social movements strongly influenced by Vatican II mission.
Comm. style: Poster resistance to imposed structures and
systems brought in through modernization problem
perspectives.
Doc style: rhetorical, solidarity, often mobilizing communities
to resist outside agencies. Radical.
Effectiveness: Has had effect in the hands of union, NGO and
community based org in contexts of resistance. Effective
during apartheid struggle.
 Summary
Paradigm: Development Support Comm.
Origin: US and Europe after 1979 attempt to provide a
middle way b/n modernization & dependency theories.
Comm. style: semi participatory using local message
formation to encourage donor-defined projects
Doc style: make diverse voice, local images and native
experts but still aimed at outside agencies agenda
Effectiveness: tend to obscure the agendas of donors, but
has been effective in bringing innovations to
beneficiaries.
 Summary
Paradigm: Another development. Multiplicity/p
Origin: Dag Hammarskjold foundation uses local knowledge
approach, indigenized DSC, participatory video
Comm. style: driven by beneficiary communities
Doc style: subject generated, participatory, action research
based production, aimed users needs known
Effectiveness: v.good at making specific communities need
known, tends to create information. Overload for donors
and fragmentation of funding to micro projects at the
expense of infrastructural development.
 Summary
Paradigm: Dev, diverse, dialogue, the 3Ds
Origin: UNESCO policy stemming from our Creative Diversity
Report/1996/
Comm. style: participatory media, including internet
communication as a stimulus for dialogue, circuit of culture
model: CFSC
Doc style: subject or cultural group generated messages using
participatory forms: exclusion of multi-cultural awareness
Effectiveness: elements found in Windhoek (S.A)
declaration/1991/ our creative diversity/1996/. Universal
declaration of cultural diversity/2001/
 Documentary Film show

• Charcoal once again,

• Yes we can…,
• The secret economy,
• technology dependency,
• Struggle over the Nile!
• T-shirt
• Radio documentary show
Story structure: These sequences must be
related to each by Concept, idea, thought,
Action, Character, Setting and Mood in order to
have a good flow of the film
Begin
ning Middle End