Transmission Media

The physical path between

transmitter and receiver.
• Repeaters or amplifiers may be used
to extend the length of the
medium.
• Communication of electromagnetic
waves is guided or unguided.
Twisted-pair
cable
UTP and
STP
Coaxial
Cable
 BNC connectors
•To connect coaxial cable to devices, it is necessary to use coaxial
connectors. The most common type of connector is the Bayone-Neill-
Concelman, or BNC, connectors.

Applications include cable TV networks, and some traditional

Ethernet LANs like 10Base-2, or 10-Base5.
Optical fibers
Propagation Modes (Types of Optical Fiber )
Propagation
Modes
THANK YOU
 The OSI Model

Open System Interconnection (OSI) model

Introduce in 1983
Adopted by ISO in 1984
ISO- International Standard Organization.
 The OSI Model
• An ISO (International standard Organization) that
covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
• An open system is a model that allows any two
different systems to communicate regardless of
their underlying architecture (hardware or
software).
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is model for
understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust and
interoperable.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the
design of network systems that allows
for communication across all types of
computer systems.
• The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers:
1. (Layer 1) Physical layer
2. (Layer 2) Data link layer
3. (Layer 3) Network layer
4. (Layer 4) Transport layer
5. (Layer 5) Session layer
6. (Layer 6) Presentation layer
7. (Layer 7) Application layer
 Peer-to-Peer Process
• Within a single machine, each layer calls upon services of
the layer just below it.
• Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer
2 and provides services for layer 4.
• Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates
with layer x on another machine, by using a protocol
(this is Peer-to-Peer Process).
• Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-
peer process using protocols appropriate to a given
layer.
 Interfaces between Layers
• There is an interface between each pair
of adjacentlayers. This interface defines
what
information and services a layer must provide
for the layer above it.
 Functions of Layers
1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next.
 Physical layer
The physical layer is concerned with the following:
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and
media: It define the type of transmission
media
• Representation of the bits: the physical layer
data consist of a stream of bits(0,1).
The transmitted bits must be encoded into
signals – electrical or optical. The physical
layer defines the type of encoding.
• Data rate: The physical layer defines the
transmission rate, the number of bits sent
each second.
 Physical Layer
• Line configuration: the physical layer is
concerned with the connection of
devices to the medium.
• Physical topology – Ring, star
• Transmission Mode - Simplex,
Half duplex Full Duplex
 2. Data Link Layer
• It is responsible for node-to-node delivery of
data.
Functions of the Data Link Layer:
• Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits
received from the network layer into data units called
frames.

• Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to

different systems on the network, the data link layer
adds a header to the frame to define the physical
address of the sender (source address) and/or receiver
(destination address) of the frame.

• If the frame is intended for a system outside the

sender’s network, the receiver address is the address of
the device that connects one network to the next.
• Flow Control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by
the receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender,
the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the
physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames. Error control
normally achieved through a trailer to the end of the frame.
is
• Access Control. When two or more devices are connected
to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary
to determine which device has control over the link
at any time.
 3. Network Layer
• The Network layer is responsible for the source-
to- destination +++delivery of a packet possible
across multiple networks.
• It converts Frames into packets.
• If two systems are connected to the same link,
there is usually no need for a network layer.
However, if the two systems are attached to different
networks, there is often a need for the network layer
to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
 Network Layer
Functions:
• Logical addressing-Physical addressing (May change) handle
addressing problem locally
• If packet pass the network boundary, we need another
addressing
called logical addressing (Never change)
• Routing - Route the packet to final destination

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the
original
source to the final destination.
 4. Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

or end-end delivery of the entire message.
• Transport layer is responsible to reliable communication
through:Segmentation , Flow control & Error control
• The network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery of
individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship
between those packets.
• The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives
intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow
control at the process-to-process level.
 Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message

from one process to another.
 Functions of the Transport layer

Service point addressing:

Computer often run several processes (running programs)
at the same time. Process-to-process delivery means
delivery from a specific process on one computer to a
specific process on the other.
• The transport layer header include a type of address
called port address.
• The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to
the correct process on that computer.
Total Port number: 65,536 are available
 Cont..
,
• Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided
into transmittable segments, each having a
sequence number. These numbers enable the
transport layer to reassemble the message correctly
upon arrival at the destination.
• Connection control: The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection-oriented.
• A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an
independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer
at the destination machine.
• A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine
first before delivering the packets. After all the
data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
 Functions of the transport layer
• Flow control: the transport layer performs a flow control
end to end. The data link layer performs flow control
across a single link.
• Error control: the transport layer performs error control
end to end. The data link layer performs control across a
single link.
• Congestion control concerns controlling traffic entry into
a telecommunication networks so as to avoid congestive
collapse by attempting to avoid oversubscription of any of
the processing or link capabilities of the intermediate
nodes and networks and taking resource reducing steps,
such as reducing the rate of sending packets. It should not
be confused with flow control, which prevents the sender
from overwhelming the receiver.
 5. Session Layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
Setting up and managing connection to transfer and received the data.
Followed by the termination of connection.
 Functions of Session Layer
• Decision Control:- Half duplex, Full Duplex
• Token management: preventing two parties
from attempting the same critical operation
simultaneously
• Synchronization: Adding checkpoints to stream data.
• Ex: System sending 2000 pages.
• Add check point after each 100th page.
• So in case of failure no need to sent whole page.
 6. Presentation Layer
• It is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged
b/w 2 devices.
 Functions of Presentation Layer
• Translation: Interoperability b/w
different encoding formats.
• Encryption: Converting plain to cipher
text and vice versa.
• Compression: Reducing number of bits
in multimedia data when transmitting.
Translation: Interoperability b/w different encoding formats
Encryption: Converting plain to cipher text and vice
versa.
Compression: Reducing number of bits in multimedia data
when transmitting.
 7. Application layer
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the
user. The application layer contains a variety of protocols that
are commonly needed by users.
Functions of Application Layer
• It provides user access to
network.
• X.500-Directory service.
•• X.400-Message
FTAM- Filehandling service.
Access and
Transfer management.
• Network Virtual Terminal.
•
Transmission Control Protocol
/ Internetworking Protocol is used in
the internet and is developed prior to the
OSI model.
• It would not match exactly with OSI
model
• It is divided into layers.
TCP/IP protocol
• It contains relatively independent protocols
that can mixed and matched with depend
on needs of the system.