Qualitative Methods

Dr Sheena Leek
G46 University House
[email protected]
Learning Objectives
By the end of the session you should
Know what qualitative data is
Be able to justify the reasons for conducting qualitative
research
Know which research approaches are predominantly
qualitative including ethnography, netnography, action
research and case studies
Be able to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of
focus groups, interviews and observation
 What’s qualitative and what’s quantitative?
Qualitative Research – An unstructured,
methodology based on small samples designed to
provide insight and understanding.

Quantitative Research – A research methodology that

seeks to quantify the data and typically applies some
form of statistical analysis.

Malhotra and Birks 2006

What’s quantitative and what’s qualitative?
Quantitative Qualitative
Principal orientation Deductive: testing of Inductive: generation
to the role of theory theory of theory
in relation to
research
Epistemological Natural science Interpretivism
orientation model, in particular
positivism
Ontological Objectivism Subjectivism
orientation
Why Use Qualitative Research?
Criticisms of qualitative research
 Research strategies – that are
predominantly qualitative
Ethnography
 Netnography Positivism
Interpretivis
Action Research Inductive
m

Case studies Exploratory Deductive

Mono method Causal

Quant Mono
Method Qual
Descriptiv
Experiment Multi Method e
Survey Quant
Longit
Ethnograph Multi
RTD y Method
C Case Study Qual
Action Mixed
Cross
Research Methods
RDTC -
Research
Tools Data
collection

Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill,

Ethnography
“Ethnography – is a research approach based upon the
observation of customs, habits and difference between
people in everyday situations.”
(Malhotra and Birks 2012, p.198)

“It is the art and science of describing a group or culture.”

(Malhotra and Birks 2012 p.198)
Ethnography - achieving immersion
Seeing through the eyes of others
Description
Contextualisation
Process
Avoiding early use of theories and concepts
Flexible research designs
Ethnography – covert or overt?
Covert role Overt Role
Advantages Advantages
 You do not need to negotiate  Overcome disadvantages of
access to an organization. covert approach
 Reactivity is not a problem Disadvantages
Disadvantages  Negotiating access
 Problem of taking notes  Reactivity
 Problem with using other  Suspicions
methods
 Anxiety
 Ethical problems
Ethnography – gaining access
Use friends, contacts, colleagues, academics
Get support from within the organization
Usually gain access through senior management
Offer something in return
Provide a clear explanation of your aims and methods
Be prepared to negotiate
Be honest
Ethnography - data collection
Secondary data
Interviews
Field notes
Mental notes
Jotted notes
Full field notes
Ethnography – the end
Set a deadline
Personal circumstances
Déjà vu
Manage ending
Netnography

Netnography – is an adaptation of ethnography that

analyses the free behaviour of individuals in online
environments. (Malhotra and Birks, 2012, p.201)
Netnography – data collection

Archival data
Elicited data
Field note data
ETHICS
Netnography – criteria for site selection
relevant
active
interactive
substantial
heterogeneous
data rich

Kozinets, 2015
Action Research
Action research is a team research process facilitated by a
professional researcher(s), linking with decision-makers
and other stakeholders who together wish to improve
particular situations. (Malhotra and Birks 2012:208)
“A small-scale intervention in the functioning of the real
world and a close examination of the effects of such an
intervention” (Cohen, Mannion & Morrison 2000:227)
“Bridges the gap between research and practice”
(Somekh 1995:340)
Action Research - qualities
Problems of immediate concern
Practical problem solving
Collaborative and participatory
Undertaken in situ
Cyclical
Seeks to understand processes
Aims to deliver usable and sharable outcomes
Action Research - process
Case studies
A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real
life context, especially when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. (Yin
2009, p.18 in Dawes)
Case studies - types
The critical case
The unique case
The revelatory case
The representative or typical case
The longitudinal case
Case Studies – sources of data
Documents
Archival records
Interviews
Observation
Artifacts
Qualitative tools

Focus groups
Interviews
Observation
Focus groups - characteristics of
Group Size
Group composition
Physical setting
Duration
Recorded
 Focus groups
Advantages Disadvantages

 Synergy  Time consuming

 Snowballing  Group effects
 Stimulation  Misjudgement
 Security  Moderation
 Spontaneity  Messiness
 Serendipity  Misrepresentation
 Scientific scrutiny  Meeting
 Structure
 Speed
 Surface
Malhotra and Birks 2006; Bryman and Bell 2012
Interviews
Structured interview
Unstructured interview
Semi structured interview
Depth interviews - characteristics
Conducted on a one to one basis
Duration
Physical setting
Recording
Depth interviews
Advantages Disadvantages
 Uncover greater depths  Skilled interviewers
 No group pressure  Interviewer bias
 Easy to arrange  Data analysis
 Obtain majority and minority  High cost
opinions
 Intimate and personal material
 Telephone and Electronic Interviews and
Focus Groups
Telephone Electronic

Advantages Advantage
 Access • Greater feeling of anonymity
 Speed • Less influenced by demographic
 Cost
characteristics in FG
 Visual cues, can observe body
• Overbearing characters dominate less in
language
FG
Disadvantages
 Lack of rapport Disadvantages
 Lack of visual cues, ability to • Less rich material
observe body language • Less visual cues, body language
 Less time • Keyboard skills may have an impact
 Difficulty with more complex
questions

Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill,

2019
Qualities of the moderator/interviewer
Knowledgeable
Encouraging and motivating
Empathetic
Sensitivity
Challenging
Observant
Conduct of Focus Groups /Interviews
Topic guide/questions
Permissiveness and flexibility –Question order may
vary –
Bring back if diverge too far
New topics –
Focus groups - planning and conducting
Clarify research objectives

Clarify the role of focus groups in fulfilling those objectives

Specify the issues to be developed in the focus groups

Specify the target respondents for the focus groups

Specify the location(s) to conduct the focus group

Recruit group members

Run an experimental group

Conduct the focus groups

Clarify the role of focus groups in fulfilling those objectives

Focus group - example of question schedule
1. Provision of refreshments
2. Introduction (15mins)
• Introduce the research team and roles
• Aim and format of the focus group
• Conventions: confidentiality, speak one at a time, recording everybody’s views
• Personal introductions of participants and British Red Cross membership
3. Discussion topics
• Role in British Red Cross (15 mins) (what is their role – paid, voluntary, how ling have
they worked/volunteered at British Red Cross)
• Experience of Crisis (20 mins) (e.g. situations involved in, experience of the crisis)
• Coping with Crises Experienced (20 mins) (e.g. effects of crisis, how they coped -
informally, formally)
• The British Red Cross Training Programmes (20 mins) (e.g. who’s been on them, what
were the useful aspects, what were the less useful aspects.)
4. Summing Up
• Thanking for participation
• Highlighting sources of help in British Red Cross
Observation techniques
Structured vs. Unstructured observation
Disguised vs. Undisguised observation
Natural vs. Contrived observation
Participant vs Non-participant
 Observation techniques – classification
Personal Observation - “An observation research strategy in which human observers record
the phenomenon being observed as it occurs.”

Electronic observation - An observation research strategy in which electronic devices rather

than human observers, record the phenomena being observed.
AC Nielsen Audiometer
Turnstiles
Traffic counters
Bar codes and optical scanners
Eye tracking monitors
Psycho-galvanometers
Voice pitch analysis
Response latency
Neuromarketing

Malhotra and Birks 2006

Observation techniques - recording data

You must be clear on the following,

What you are observing and the units of analysis
When the observation will take place.
How will the data be observed
Where will the data be observed
How the data will be recorded

Wilson 2010
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Observation Techniques

Measures ACTUAL The reasons behind the

behaviour. observed behaviour are
difficult to determine.
No interviewer bias. Researcher bias.
Time consuming.
Certain types of information Expensive.
can ONLY be collected by Difficult to observe certain
observation techniques. kinds of behaviour.
 E.g. babies’ toy preferences Bordering on the unethical.
Reading
 Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019 Chapter 9, 10, Research Methods for Business
Students, 8th Edition
 Bryman and Bell, 2018, Chapter 17-23 Business Research Methods, 5th Edition
 Barbour, R., 2006, Introducing Qualitative Research, Second Edition, Sage
 Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S. 2017, Handbook of Qualitative Research, 5th Edition, Sage
 Flick, U., 2018, An Introduction to Qualitative Research, 6th Edition, Sage
 Kozinets, R.V., 2015, Netnography, Second Edition, Sage
Ethnography Paper
 Caroline Moraes , Isabelle Szmigin & Marylyn Carrigan (2010) Living production‐
engaged alternatives: An examination of new consumption communities, Consumption
Markets & Culture, 13:3, 273-298, DOI: 10.1080/10253861003787015
Netnography Paper
 Iryna Pentina Clinton Amos, (2011),"The Freegan phenomenon: anti-consumption or
consumer resistance?", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 45 Iss 11/12 pp. 1768 -
1778 Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090561111167405