Subject: Biodiversity (Invertebrates)

 Assistant Professor: Kamran Ullah (PhD)

 Department of Biology
 The University of Haripur

1
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
The geologic time scale is a system of chronological
(arranged in the order in which they happened) dating that
classifies geological strata in time. It is used by geologists,
paleontologists, and other Earth scientists to describe the
timing and relationships of events in geologic history.
EON: an indefinite and very long (one billion years) period
of time. The eon is the broadest category of geological time.
Earth's history is characterized by four eons; in order from
oldest to youngest, these are the Hadeon, Archean,
Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic..
ERA: In geology era is a time of several hundred million
years. An era is made up of PERIODS, and several eras
make up an eon. There are three Geologic Eras currently
identified. The Paleozoic Era, the Mesozoic Era (when
dinosaurs lived on the Earth), and the Cenozoic Era.
EPOCH: An epoch is a subdivision of the geologic timescale
that is longer than an age but shorter than a period. The
current epoch is the Holocene 2 Epoch of the Quaternary
 The Geologic Time Scale (MYA)
(major global extinctions are sh
aded blue)

3
4
 INTRODUCTION:
The Importance of Research on
Invertebrates
“We need invertebrates, but they don’t need
us.”
E. O. Wilson. 1987. The little things that run
the world (the importance and conservation
of invertebrates).
It surprises me that people don’t want to
learn more about invertebrates. For one
thing, the diversity of invertebrate form and
function is truly astounding (surprising).
In addition, important research has been
conducted and continues to be conducted
using invertebrates.
Many diseases of humans and of the animals
and plants upon which we depend are caused
by either invertebrate directly or indirectly,
and invertebrates play critical5 roles in most
 control of gene expression, mitosis, meiosis, and
regeneration; the design of gene regulatory networks in
embryonic development; aging, programmed cell death,
wound repair, and regeneration; the mechanisms of
pattern formation during embryonic development; the
control and consequences of phenotypic plasticity (a
single genotype can produce different phenotypes under
different environmental conditions); the evolutionary
history of hemoglobin and ecdysteroid function;
fertilization and chemoreception; the transmission of
nerve impulses; the biochemical basis of learning and
memory; the biology of vision; and the biochemical and
genetic basis for predisposition to some major diseases
(e.g., type II diabetes).
 In addition, modern research on invertebrates explain
how immune recognition systems evolved and how they
work.
 Interest in certain invertebrates as biological agents for
controlling various agricultural pests and as sources of
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unique chemicals of potential biomedical and commercial
 -- venomous snails helps neurobiologists to study key
aspects of nerve and muscle function, such as how ion
channels are opened and closed.
 Detailed studies of crustacean (crabs, shrimps) and insect
navigation (skills or processess for planning a route) and
locomotion, and how that locomotion is controlled and
coordinated, may lead to the design of new robots, both
flying and crawling, macro and micro. Studies on the
optical properties of certain sponge fibers may lead to the
manufacture of more effective fiber optic cables; and
detailed studies of how echinoderms form their remarkable
calcite crystals may have similarly sophisticated
engineering applications.
 Invertebrates also have become widely used to evaluate
and monitor pollutant stress in aquatic environments, and
the rapid loss of invertebrate species from both terrestrial
and aquatic habitats is gaining increasing attention in
biodiversity studies.
 The recently documented phenomenon Colony Collapse
7
Disorder, in which hundreds of thousands of honeybees
 -- accounting for some $15 billion in annual sales.
 Bumblebees, which pollinate some 15% of commercial
crops in the U.S., are also in serious decline.
 Finally, there is a growing concern about the increased
spread of various invertebrate species into non-native
habitats, and increasing attention is being paid to the
mechanisms of transport and to the ecological impact of
such biological invasions.
 Of course, nobody yet knows the consequences of
continued pollution, biological invasions, and global
climate change on food web function (aquatic or
terrestrial food-webs); probably there is only one way
to do the experiment, and we’re all participating.
Note:
 Biological invasions are a major force of change, affecting
many dimensions of life on earth. Invasions result when
species colonize new geographic regions, which are
disjunct (isolated) from existing populations.
8
 LIFE BEGINS WITH CELLS
Like ourselves, the individual cells that form our bodies can grow,
reproduce, process information, respond to stimuli, and carry out
an amazing array of chemical reactions. These abilities define life.
We and other multicellular organisms contain billions or trillions
of cells organized into complex structures, but many organisms
consist of a single cell. Even simple unicellular organisms exhibit
all the hallmark properties of life, indicating that the cell is the
fundamental unit of life.
Cell Evolution
Approximately 3.5 billion years ago, cellular life emerged on
Earth in the form of primitive bacteria. Bacteria or “prokaryotes”
organize their genes into a circular chromosome that lies exposed
within the fluid environment of the cell. Within a billion years,
bacterial cell types diversified, evolving numerous ways of
extracting energy from the environment.
These types included first the fermenting anaerobic
archaebacteria, then the oxygen-producing photosynthetic
cyanobacteria, and finally respiring aerobic bacteria able to utilize
the new oxygen-rich atmosphere.9
 In addition some bacteria had become motile, such as the
corkscrew-shaped wriggling (twisting) spirochetes. All of these
bacterial cell types have descendants living today.
 Eukaryotes, whose deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is seized within
a separate membrane-bound nucleus, first emerged perhaps 2
billion years ago. Eukaryotic cells also contain an extensive
internal membrane system, a cytoskeleton, and different kinds
of membrane-bound organelle, including mitochondria (the
“power factories”) and, in algae and plants, plastids (sites of
photosynthesis).
 All multicellular life, including plants, animals, and fungi, are
composed of eukaryotic cells; some microbes, such as
unicellular algae and protozoa, are also eukaryotes.

So how did this great diversity of eukaryotic organisms evolve

from prokaryotic ancestors?

10
 SERIAL ENDOSYMBIOSIS
The most widely accepted explanation is known as the Serial
endosymbiosis theory (SET), proposed by Lynn Margulis. In 1905
Russian botanist Constantin Mereschkowsky played an important
role in developing the concept of symbiogenesis, ‘‘the origin of
organisms through the combination and unification of two or
many beings entering into symbiosis’’
In the 1920s researcher Ivan Wallin suggested that organelles
such as chloroplasts and mitochondria originated as symbiotic
bacteria. His theory was rejected by his colleagues, leading him to
abandon (finished) his laboratory investigations. However, in
1967 the theory was resuscitated by Margulis.
The common ancestor of eukaryotes was formed by merging cells
through symbiogenesis. The key element of this merger is that
one cell engulfed another in much the same way that an ameba
takes in a prey item: by surrounding it with a host plasma
membrane.
However, in this case, the engulfed organism was not digested;
instead the two organisms became interdependent.
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 The engulfed cell maintained its own genetic material, but lost
some vital functions and is now an organelle in the host cell.
The organelles produced by symbiogenesis include
mitochondria and plastids.
 Mitochondria, for example, may be descendants of once free-
living bacteria. These bacteria either invaded or were engulfed
by the ancient cells and formed a mutually beneficial
relationship with them. This idea is called the endosymbiont
theory. It is generally accepted by the biological community to
explain the origin of some features of eukaryotic cells, including
mitochondria.
 Scientists currently are not certain whether endosymbiosis was
a factor in the origin of other eukaryotic features such as the
membrane-bound nucleus. An additional possibility is that
infolding of the plasma membrane of an ancient prokaryote
produced some of the organelles (for example, the
endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi complex) found in eukaryotic
cells of today.
 Fossils of prokaryotic cells have been dated at 3.5 billion years
old, and scientists estimate that the first prokaryotic cells
12
probably arose around 3.8 billion years ago.
13
POINTS
Protoctista A kingdom consisting of unicellular or simple
multicellular organisms that possess nuclei and cannot be
classified as animals, plants, or fungi.
Amitochondrial mastogotes: Chiefly free-living flagellates, lack of
mitochondria.

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LINNAEUS DEVELOPED THE SCIENTIFIC NAMING
SYSTEM STILL USED TODAY

 Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying organisms.

 A taxon is a group of organisms in a classification system.

White oak:
Quercus alba
 Binomial nomenclature is a two-part scientific
naming system.
 Uses Latin words
 Scientific names are always written in italics
 Two parts are the genus name and species
descriptor
 A genus includes one or more physically similar species.
 Species in the same genus are thought to be closely related.
 Genus name is always capitalized.
 A species descriptor is the second part of a scientific name.
 Always lowercase, follows the genus name, and never
written alone.

Tyto alba
SCIENTIFIC NAMES HELP SCIENTISTS TO
COMMUNICATE

 Some species have many common

names.
 LINNAEUS’ CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM HAS
SEVEN LEVELS

 Each level is
included in
the level
above it.
 Levels get
increasingly
specific from
kingdom to
species.
 CLASSIFICATION IS ALWAYS A WORK
IN PROGRESS

 The tree of life shows our most current understanding.

 New discoveries can lead to changes in classification.
 Until 1866: only two kingdoms,
Animalia and Plantae Plantae

Animalia
 The tree of life shows our most current understanding.
 New discoveries can lead to changes in classification.
 Until 1866: only two kingdoms,
Plantae
Animalia and Plantae
Animalia
 1866: all single-
Protista
celled organisms
moved to kingdom
Protista
 The tree of life shows our most current understanding.
 New discoveries can lead to changes in classification.
 Until 1866: only two kingdoms,
Plantae
Animalia and Plantae
Animalia
 1866: all single-
Protista
celled organisms
moved to kingdom
 Protista
1938: prokaryotes
moved to kingdom
Monera
Monera
 The tree of life shows our most current understanding.
 New discoveries can lead to changes in classification.
 Until 1866: only two kingdoms,
Plantae
Animalia and Plantae
Animalia
 1866: all single-
Protista
celled organisms
moved to kingdom
 Protista
1938: prokaryotes
moved to kingdom
 Monera
1959: fungi Monera
moved to their
own kingdom Fungi
 The tree of life shows our most current understanding.
 New discoveries can lead to changes in classification.
 Until 1866: only two kingdoms,
Plantae
Animalia and Plantae
Animalia
 1866: all single-
Protista
celled organisms
moved to kingdom
 Protista
1938: prokaryotes
moved to kingdom
 Monera
1959: fungi Archea
moved to their Bacteria
Fungi
 own
1977:kingdom
kingdom Monera split into kingdoms Bacteria
and Archaea
 THREE-DOMAIN SYSTEM
(CARL WOESE’S OR SIX KINGDOMS CLASSIFICATION)
 Phylogeny refers to the evolutionary relationships between organisms.
 The classification divides the life forms into three domains and six
kingdoms and was first introduced by Carl Woese in 1990.
 The three domains of Carl Woese’s Classification system include
archaea, bacteria, eukaryote, and six kingdoms are Archaebacteria
(ancient bacteria), Eubacteria (true bacteria), Protista, Fungi, Plantae,
Animalia.
 Prokaryotic organisms belong either to the domain Archaea or the
domain Bacteria; organisms with eukaryotic cells belong to the domain
Eukarya.
 This classification system divides the life based on the differences in
the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) structure and as well as the cell’s
membrane lipid structure and its sensitivity to antibiotics.
In this classification, Carl Woese uses 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as a
‘Chronometer’, because of;
1. It is universally distributed means its presence in all species.
2. It is functionally similar in all organisms.
3. It can change its sequence slowly.
4. rRNA nucleotide sequences can be aligned, or matched up between
two organisms.
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26
Domains are above the kingdom level
DOMAIN ARCHAEA
The Archaea domain includes all prokaryotic cells, they lack
nuclear membrane; and are considered the oldest species
of organisms on Earth.
They can survive in extreme, harsh environments that
differentiated them from other domains.
Unlike the Bacteria and the Eukarya, the Archaea have
membranes composed of branched hydrocarbon chains
(many also contain rings within the hydrocarbon chains)
attached to glycerol by ether linkages.
The cell walls of Archaea contain no peptidoglycan.
Archaea has three phyla such as;
Crenarchaeota: They can survive at extremely high
temperatures and extremely low temperatures.
Euryarchaeota: Some of them are known as extremely
halophiles, which can inhibit highly saline environments.
Konarchaeota: It includes all those species that were
found in a single hot spring, Obsidian Pool, present in
Yellowstone National Park (USA).
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DOMAIN BACTERIA
These are also prokaryotic cells and are also called
eubacteria or “true bacteria”. Like the Eukarya, they have
membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains
attached to glycerol by ester linkages.
The cell walls of Bacteria, unlike the Archaea and the
Eukarya, contain peptidoglycan.
Bacteria contain rRNA that is distinctly different from the
rRNA of Archaea and Eukarya.
There are present 5 phyla of the bacterial domain
such as;
Proteobacteria: These are E. coli (Gram-negative bacteria).
Cyanobacteria: These are the photosynthetic‘ blue-green’
bacteria that produce O2 gas.
Eubacteria: Clostridium (Gram-positive bacteria), Bacillus,
Mycoplasma (walking pneumonia).
Chlamydias: These are Giardia and Chlamydia (STD) etc.
Spirochaetes: These are Spiral bacteria that cause syphilis,
and Lyme disease. 30
 One of the largest groups on Earth
 Classified by shape, need for oxygen, and diseases caused
DOMAIN EUKARYA
These are eukaryotic cells with a membrane-bound
nucleus. Like Bacteria, they have membranes composed of
unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol by ester
linkages.
There are presently four Kingdoms of Eukarya such as;
Protista: These are slime molds, euglenoids, algae, and
protozoans.
Fungi: These are sac fungi, club fungi, yeasts, and molds.
Plantae: These are mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering
plants.
Animalia: These are sponges, worms, insects, and
vertebrates.

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KINGDOM PROTISTA KINGDOM PLANTAE
KINGDOM FUNGI KINGDOM ANIMALIA
35
 ARCHITECTURAL PATTERN OF AN ANIMAL
New Designs for Living:
Zoologists today recognize 34 phyla of multicellular animals,
each phylum characterized by a distinctive body plan and
biological properties that set it apart from all other phyla. All
are survivors of perhaps 100 phyla that appeared 600 million
years ago during the Cambrian explosion.
All major body plans that we see today, together with many
other novel plans that we know only from the fossil record,
evolved. Entering a world sparse (present in small numbers
and spread over a large area) in species and mostly free of
competition, these new life-forms diversified, producing new
themes in animal architecture (Structures built by animals,
often called animal architecture).
Later bursts of evolutions that followed major extinction
events produced mainly variations on established themes.
Established themes, in the form of distinctive body plans,
are passed from an ancestral population to its descendants;
36
molluscs usually carry -
 - a hard shell, bird forelimbs make wings. These ancestral
traits limit (cannot change morphology) the morphological
scope of descendants regardless of their lifestyle (lifestyle
can be changed). Although penguin bodies are modified
for an aquatic life, their wings and feathers are clearly
remnants of an ancestral flight apparatus. Despite
structural and functional evolution, new forms are often
constrained (controlled) by the architecture of their
ancestors.
 The basic uniformity of biological organization derives from
the common ancestry of animals and from their cellular
construction. Despite vast differences of structural
complexity of organisms ranging from unicellular forms to
humans, all share an intrinsic material design and
fundamental functional plan.

37
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
According to evolutionary biologist's animals are evolved
from unicellular eukaryotic aquatic organisms of kingdom
Protista (unicellular eukaryotes).
However so far it is not clear from which group of
unicellular eukaryotic organisms, the multicellular animals
are evolved. Their ancestry is still under discussion among
evolutionary biologists.
Kingdom Animalia consists of a huge number of animals.
Therefore, they need to be divided into groups on the basis
of similarities. Animals that possess some common
characteristics are kept in one group.
In this way all animals of Kingdom Animalia are organized
into different groups.
This process of dividing animals into various groups on the
basis of shared characteristics is called classification. There
are various ways of animal classification.

38
Classification on the basis of vertebral column:
On the basis of vertebral column animals are broadly divided
into two groups.
•Vertebrata: This group include all those animals which
possess vertebral column also called back bone. Fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals belong to group
vertebrata.
•Invertebrata: All those animals which do not possess vertebral
column are included in this group. The group Invertebrata also
consist of large number of oanimals.
2. PhylumTherefore,
Coelentratathey are
classified into various phyla ono the basis ofAschalmint
4. Phylum their similarities.
These phyla are as follows: hes
o1. Phylum Porifera o 6. Phylum Mollusca
o3. Phylum Platyhelminthes o 8. Phylum Echinoder
o5. Phylum Annelida mata
o7. Phylum Arthropoda
o9. Phylum Chordata (except subphylum vertebrata)
o10. Phylum Ctenophora and minor phyla: There are few
invertebrate animals which are39different from all other
invertebrate animals of the above phyla. They live deep inside
Pretty Powerful Cat Placed An Apple Around Mouse Whic
h Enchoed Hard
U Clap Vertical
Cinderella Is Princess And Remaining's Are Maids

40
Division of Phylum: The animals of each phylum are again divided into
many groups on the basis of similarities into the following categories.
oPhylum (Consist of one large group of animals which have some
broad similarities).
oClass (The animals of phylum which are more similar to each other
are divided into various classes).
oOrder (The animals of class which are more similar to each
other are divided into various orders).
oFamily (The animals of each order which are more similar to
each other are divided into various families).
oGenus (Consist of group of animals which are very close to each
other).
oSpecies (It is a group of animals which have similar characters, can
interbreed with each other and produce fertile offspring). Species is a
smallest unit of classification.
On the basis of similarities, the animals of each phylum can be divided
into super-phylum, sub-phylum. Similarly, animals of class into
super-class, sub-class; animals of order into sub-order; and
animals of family into sub-family.
41
However, animals of a genus cannot be sub-divided because genus
42
43
Classification on the basis of Cell Number:
On the basis of cellular composition, organisms are classified into
two groups.
Protozoa: This group includes unicellular eukaryotic organisms
such as amoeba, plasmodium, paramecium, trypanosoma etc. In
this group, all life activities are performed by a single cell.
According to modern classification, the members of protozoa are
excluded from the kingdom Animalia and are kept in a separate
kingdom called Protista.
Metazoa: This group includes true multicellular animals which are
believed to evolve from members of kingdom Protista. Animals of
Metazoa are further divided into the following two categories.
oA. Parazoa: It includes the simplest multicellular animals, that for
the most part lack a definite symmetry and possess neither
tissues nor organs. Their bodies consist of many cells which are
functionally different i.e. some cells perform the function of
reproduction and other digestion. However, these animals lack
true tissue. According to modern classification, parazoa is
considered a subkingdom. Only animals belonging to phylum
Porifera are included in this group.
oB. Eumetazoa: Eumetazoa is also 44 now considered a subkingdom.
FIGURE 44.2
A possible
phylogeny of
the major
groups of the
kingdom
Animalia.

Transitions in
the animal
body plan are
identified along
the branches;

The five key

advances are
the evolution of
tissues,
bilateral
symmetry, a
body cavity,
protostome and
deuterostome
development,
and
segmentation.

45
 HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF
ANIMAL COMPLEXITY
Among the different unicellular and metazoan groups, we
recognize five major grades of organization (Table 9.1). Each
grade is more complex than the one preceding and builds on
it in a hierarchical manner.
The unicellular groups are the simplest eukaryotic
organisms and represent the protoplasmic grade of
organization. They are nonetheless complete organisms that
perform all functions of life seen in more complex animals.
Within the confines of their cell, they show remarkable
organization and division of labor, possessing distinct
supportive structures, locomotor devices, and simple sensory
structures. The diversity observed among unicellular
organisms is achieved by varying the architectural patterns
of subcellular structures, organelles, and the cell as a whole.
The multicellular animals evolved greater structural
complexity by combining cells into larger units. An animal
cell is a specialized part of the46 whole organism and, unlike a
 -- capable of independent existence. Cells of a multicellular
organism are specialized for performing the various tasks
accomplished by subcellular elements in unicellular forms.
The simplest metazoans show the cellular grade of
organization, in which cells demonstrate division of labor
but are not strongly associated to perform a specific
collective function (Table 9.1).
 In the more complex cell-tissue grade of organization, cells
are grouped together and perform their common functions
as a highly coordinated unit called a tissue. Animals at or
beyond the cell-tissue grade of organization are called
eumetazoans.
 In animals of the tissue-organ grade of organization,
tissues are assembled into still larger functional units
called organs. Usually one type of tissue performs an
organ’s chief function, as muscle tissue does in the heart;
other tissues-epithelial and connective-perform supportive
roles. The chief functional cells of an organ are called
parenchyma. The supportive 47 tissues are its stroma. For
TABLE 9 . 1: Grades of Organization in Organismal Complexit
y

48
 Most animals have an additional level of complexity in
which different organs operate together as organ systems.
Eleven different kinds of organ systems are described in
metazoans: skeletal, muscular, integumentary, digestive,
respiratory, circulatory, excretory, nervous, endocrine,
immune, and reproductive.

49
50
51
52
53
54
FIGURE 44.2
A possible
phylogeny of
the major
groups of the
kingdom
Animalia.

Transitions in
the animal
body plan are
identified along
the branches;

The five key

advances are
the evolution of
tissues,
bilateral
symmetry, a
body cavity,
protostome and
deuterostome
development,
and
segmentation.

55
2. Body Cavities and Germ Layers:

56
57
 SPONGES are the simplest multicellular animals (metazoans).

58
 The depression becomes a gut cavity, also called a
gastrocoel or archenteron. The external opening to the
depression is the blastopore; it typically becomes the
adult mouth or anus.
 The gut lining is endoderm and the outer layer of cells,
surrounding the blastocoel, is ectoderm (Figure 9.3). The
embryo now has two cavities, a gut cavity and a
blastocoel.
 Animals such as sea anemones and jellyfish develop
from these two germ layers and are called diploblastic
(Figure 9.5, upper pathway). They typically have radial
symmetry as adult animals. The fluid-filled blastocoel
persists in diploblasts.
 In other organism the two germ layers are filled with a
third germ layer, mesoderm. Animals that possess
ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are termed
triploblastic, and most are bilaterally symmetrical.

59
60
61
62
Figure 9.3 (A) Mesoderm resides in different parts of the gastrula during the formation
of acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, and schizocoelous body plans. B) Mesoderm and a
coelom form together in the enterocoelus plan.
63
Figure 9.4
Acoelomate,
pseudocoelomate,
and eucoelomate
body plans are shown
as cross-sections of
representative
animals.
Note the relative
positions of
parenchyma,
peritoneum, and body
organs.

65
66
67
68
69
Figure 9.5
Different developmental
sequences produce
diploblastic versus triploblastic
animals.
Of the two major pathways
within the triploblasts, one
produces acoelomate and
pseudocoelomate animals, as
well as lophotrochozoan
protostomes that form a
coelom by schizocoely.

Ecdysozoan protostomes are

not shown here.
The second major triploblastic
pathway produces
deuterostomes that form a
coelom by enterocoely.
In chordate deuterostomes,
coelom formation is by
70
enterocoely for invertebrate
 A COMPLETE GUT AND SEGMENTATION
A few diploblasts and triploblasts have a blind or incomplete gut
cavity where food must enter and exit the same opening. Most
common animal phyla, both invertebrate and vertebrate, have
complete Gut (Fig 9.5). A complete gut makes possible a one-way
flow of food from the mouth to the anus.
Segmentation, also called metamerism, is a serial repetition of
similar body segments along the longitudinal axis of the body and
is the common feature of metazoans. Each segment is called a
metamere, or somite.
In forms such as earthworms and other annelids (Fig 9.6), in which
metamerism is most clearly represented, the segmental
arrangement includes both external and internal structures of
several systems. There is repetition of muscles, blood vessels,
nerves, and setae of locomotion (Fig 17.9–17.22). Some other
organs, such as those of sex, may be repeated in only a few
segments (Fig 17.19).
In many animals including humans, evolutionary changes have
obscured (hidden) much of the segmentation, although it is often
observed during development.
Segmentation is sufficiently displayed
71 in phylum Arthropoda
(largest assemblage of animals on earth) which permits greater
Figure 9.6
Segmented phyla.
Segmentation (also
called metamerism),
or repetition of
structural units,
brings more varied
specialization
because segments,
especially in
arthropods, have
become modified for
different functions.

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 THANKS

If any difficulty in the

whole chapter,
we can revise:

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