Chapter 11

An Introduction to Graph Theory

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.1 Definitions and Examples
Undirected graph Directed graph
loop

G=(V,E)
isolated vertex
multiple
edges
adjacent
simple graph: an undirected graph without loop or multiple edges
degree of a vertex: number of edges connected
(indegree, outdegree)
For simple graphs,  deg(v i ) 2 | E |
vi V
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.1 Definitions and Examples

a
x y
path: no vertex can be repeated e
b
a-b-c-d-e
trail: no edge can be repeat
a-b-c-d-e-b-d
d
walk: no restriction
a-b-d-a-b-c c
length: number of edges in
closed if x=y this (path,trail,walk)
closed trail: circuit (a-b-c-d-b-e-d-a,
one draw without lifting pen)
closed path: cycle (a-b-c-d-a)

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.1 Definitions and Examples
Theorem 1.1 Let G = (V , E ) be an undirected graph, with
a , b V , a  b . If there exists a trail from a to b , then there is
a path from a to b . remove any cycle on the repeated
vertices
a x b

Def 11.4 Let G=(V,E) be an undirected graph. We call G connected

if there is a path between any two distinct vertices of G.
a e a e
b b
disconnected with
two components

d d
c c
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.1 Definitions and Examples
Def. 11.5 For any graph G = (V , E ), the number of components
of G is denoted by  ( G ).
1  ( G ) | V |

Can you think of an algorithm to determine  ( G )?

Def. 11.6
multigraph of multiplicity 3
multigraphs

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
Def. 11.7 If G = (V , E ) is a graph, then G1  (V1 , E1 ) is called
a subgraph of G if  V1  V and E1  E , where each edge of
in E1 is incident with vertices in V1 .

a a
a b e
e e
b b
d d
c c
d d induced subgraph
c c include all edges
spanning subgraph of E in V1
V1=V
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
a
Def. 11.11 complete graph: Kn
e
b
K5
Def. 11.12 complement of a graph
a G G a d
c
e e
b b

d d
c c
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
Theorem: Any graph of six vertices contains a K3 or K3.
(In a party of six, There exists 3 people who are either
mutually acquainted or mutually inacquainted.)
5 is not enough. For 6 people, let's look from the point of
a view of a:
From the pigeonhole principle, there are
e 3 who know a or 3 who does not know a.
b
a a

d b c d b c d
c K3 or K3. K3 or K3.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
Ex. 11.7 Instant Insanity, 4 cubes, each of the six faces on a
cube is painted with one of the colors, red (R), white (W),
blue (B), or Yellow (Y). The object is to place the cubes in a
column of four such that all four colors appear on each of the
four sides of the column.
Y R R W
W R Y W B B W Y R B Y B W R B Y
B (1) Y (2) W (3) W (4)

There are (3)(24)(24)(24)=41472 possibilities to consider.

the bottom cube 6 faces with 4 rotations

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
Y R R W
W R Y W B B W Y R B Y B W R B Y
B (1) Y (2) W (3) W (4)

R W Consider the subgraph of opposite column.

1 4
3 R 3 W R 1 W
4 3 2 1 4 2 4 2 3 4
1
Y B 3 Y 1 B Y 2 B
2
Each edge corresponds Y B W R
to a pair of opposite faces. W R Y B R YB W
B W R Y
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 1
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
Graph Isomorphism
2 a b
1
c
w x y z
3 4 d
Def. 11.13 Let G1  (V1 , E1 ) and G 2  (V 2 , E 2 ) be two
undirected graphs. A function f : V1  V 2 is called a graph
isomorphism if (a) f is one - to - one and onto and (b) for
all a , b V1 , ( a , b )  E1 if and only if ( f ( a ), f ( b ))  E 2 .
When such a function exists, G1 and G 2 are called
isomorphic graohs.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 1

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
Ex. 11.8 q r a
w e j f
v y z b
x i g
h
t d c
u
a-q c-u e-r g-x i-z b-v d-y f-w h-t j-s, isomorphic
Ex. 11.9
degree 2
vertices=3
degree 2 vertices=2
Can you think of an algorithm for testing isomorphism?

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 1

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits
degree 1 vertex: pendant vertex
Theorem 11.2 For simple graphs,  deg(v i ) 2 | E |
vi V
Corollary 11.1 The number of vertices of odd degree must be even.
Ex. 11.11 a regular graph: each vertex has the same degree
Is it possible to have a 4-regular graph with 10 edges?
2|E|=4|V|=20, |V|=5 possible (K5)
with 15 edges?
2|E|=4|V|=30 not possible

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 1

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits
Ex. 11.12 The Seven Bridge of Konigsberg
area a

area b area d

a area c

Find a way to walk about the city so as to cross

each bridge exactly once and then return to the
b d
starting point.

c
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 1
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits
Def. 11.15 Let G=(V,E) be an undirected graph or multigraph
with no isolated vertices. Then G is said to have an Euler circuit
if there is a circuit in G that traverses every edge of the graph
exactly once. If there is an open trail from a to b in G and this
trail traverses each edge in G exactly once, the trail is called an
Euler trail.
Theorem 11.3 Let G=(V,E) be an undirected graph or multigraph
with no isolated vertices. Then G has an Euler circuit if and only
if G is connected and every vertex in G has even degree.
a
All degrees are odd. Hence no Euler circuit
b d for the Konigsberg bridges problem.

c
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 1
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits

proof of Euler circuit theorem:

Euler circult connected and even degree

s for starting vertex

obvious
v for other vertices
connected and even degree Euler circuit
by induction on the number of edges.

e=1 or 2 e=n find any circuit containing s

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 1

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits

Can you think of an algorithm to construct an Euler circuit?

Corollary 11.2 An Euler trail exists in G if and only if G is
connected and has exactly two vertices of odd degree.
two odd degree vertices add an edge
a b

Theorem 11.4 A directed Euler circuit exists in G if and only if

G is connected and in-degree(v)=out-degree(v) for all vertices v.

one in, one out

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 1
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits

Ex. 11.13 Complete Cycles (DeBruijn Sequences)

If n is a positive integer and N=2n, a cycle of length N of 0's and 1's
is called a complete cycle if all possible subsequences of 0's and 1's of
length n appear in this cycle. n=1 01,
n=2 0011,
For n=3: a n=3 00010111,00011101
n=4 16 complete cycles
00 2 n  1 n
In general 2
b h
f vertex set={00,01,10,11}
01 10 a directed edge from x1x2 to x2 x3
c g e Find an Euler circuit:
abcdefgh 00111010
11 d abgfcdeh 00101110
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 1
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs
Def. 11.17 A graph (or multigraph) G is called planar if G can be
drawn in the plane with its edges intersecting only at vertices of G.
Such a drawing of G is called an embedding of G in the plane.
Ex. 11.14,11.15 K1,K2,K3,K4 are planar, Kn for n>4 are nonplanar.

K4
K5

applications: VLSI routing, plumbing,...

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 1
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs
Def. 11.18 bipartite graph and complete bipartite graphs (Km,n)

K4,4

K3,3 is not planar.

Therefore, any graph containing K5
or K4,4 is nonplanar.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 2

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs
Def. 11.19 elementary subdivision (homeomorphic operation)

u w u v w
G1 and G2 are called homeomorphic if they are isomorphic
or if they can both be obtained from the same loop-free
undirected graph H by a sequence of elementary subdivisions.
a b a b a b a b

c c c c
e d e d e d e d
Two homeomorphic graphs are simultaneously planar or nonplanar.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 2

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs
Theorem 11.5 (Kuratowski's Theorem) A graph is planar if
and only if it contains a subgraph that is homeomorphic to
either K5 or K3,3.

Ex. 11.17 Petersen graph

a subgraph homeomorphic to K3,3
a j a
j f d
e b c
i g i
e f b
h
d c h
g
Petersen graph is nonplanar.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 2

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs

A planar graph divides the plane

R1 into several regions (faces), one
K4 R2 R4
of them is the infinite region.

R3 v=4,e=6,r=4, v-e+r=2

Theorem 11.6 (Euler's planar graph theorem)

For a connected planar graph or multigraph:
v-e+r=2

number number
number
of vertices of regions
of edges
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 2
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs
proof: The proof is by induction on e.
e=0 or 1 v=1 v=1 v=2
r=1 r=2 r=1
v-e+r=2
e=0 e=1 e=1
Assume that the result is true for any connected planar graph or
multigraph with e edges, where 0 e  k
Now for G=(V,E) with |E|=k+1 edges, let H=G-(a,b) for a,b in V.
Since H has k edges, v H  e H  rH 2
And, v G  v H , e G  e H  1.
Now consider the situation about regions.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 2

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs

case 1: H is connected
b

b
a
a(=b) a(=b) a

 v G  e G  rG  v H  ( e H  1)  ( rH  1)  v H  e H  rH  2

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 2

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs
case 2: H is disconnected

a a H1

b b H2

a b H1 a b H2
v H1  v H2  v G , e H1  e H2  e G  1, rH1  rH2  rG  1.
And by the induction hypothesis, v H1  e H1  rH1  2 ,
v H2  e H2  rH2  2 . Therefore, v G  e G  rG  ( v H1  v H2 )
 ( e H1  e H2  1)  ( rH1  rH2  1)  ( v H1  e H1  rH1 ) 
( v H2  e H2  rH2 )  2  2  2  2  2
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 2
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs
degree of a region (deg(R)): the number of edges traversed in
a shortest closed walk about the boundary of R.
two different embeddings R
a b 6
R8
R2 R4
c R3 R5
R7
R1 g h
d f
deg(R1)=5,deg(R2)=3 deg(R5)=4,deg(R6)=3
deg(R3)=3,deg(R4)=7 deg(R7)=5,deg(R8)=6
abghgfda
4 8
 deg( Ri ) 18   deg( Ri )  2 9  2 | E |
i 1 i 5

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 2

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs
Corollary 11.3 Let G = (V , E ) be a loop - free connected planar
graph with | V | = v, | E | = e > 2, and r regions. Then 3r  2 e and
e  3v - 6.
Proof: Since G is a loop - free and is not a multigraph, the
boundary of each region (including the infinite region) contains
at least three edges. Hence, each region has degree  3.
Consequently, 2 e = 2 | E | = the sum of the degrees of the r
regions determined by G and 2 e  3r . From Euler' s theorem,
2e e
2 = v - e + r  v - e +  v  , so 6  3v - e, or e  3v - 6.
3 3

Only a necessary condition, not sufficient.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 2

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs
Ex. 11.18 For K5, e=10,v=5, 3v-6=9<10=e. Therefore,
by Corollary 11.3, K5 is nonplanar.

Ex. 11.19 For K3,3, each region has at least 4 edges, hence
4r 2e. If K3,3 is planar, r=e-v+2=9-6+2=5. So 20=4r 2e=18,
a contradiction.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 2

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs
A dual graph of a planar graph
1 1 2
a b
2 c 3
3
4
6 5 d
4
e f
6 5

g An edge in G corresponds with an edge in Gd.

It is possible to have isomorphic graphs with respective duals that

are not isomorphic.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 3

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.4 Planar Graphs
Def. 11.20 cut-set: a subset of edges whose removal increase
the number of components

Ex. 11.21
b e cut-sets: {(a,b),(a,c)},
{(b,d),(c,d)},{(d,f)},...
d f
a h

c g
a bridge
For planar graphs, cycles in one graph correspond to cut-sets
in a dual graphs and vice versa.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 3

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles

a path or cycle that contain every vertex

Unlike Euler circuit, there is no known

necessary and sufficient condition for a
graph to be Hamiltonian.
an NP-complete problem
Ex. 11.24 c
a b There is a Hamilton path, but no
Hamilton cycle.
d e f

g h
i
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 3
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Ex. 11.25
x start labeling from here
4x's and 6y's, since x and y must
y y x y y interleave in a Hamilton path (or cycle),
the graph is not Hamiltonian
y
x x
y
The method works only for bipartite graphs.
The Hamilton path problem is still NP-complete when restricted
to bipartite graphs.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 3

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Ex. 11.26 17 students sit at a circular table, how many sittings are
there such that one has two different neighbors each time?
Consider K17, a Hamilton cycle in K17 corresponds to a seating
arrangements. Each cycle has 17 edges, so we can have
(1/17)17(17-1)/2=8 different sittings.
5 5 5
3 15 3 15 3 15
2 1 17 2 1 17 2 1 17
4 16 4 16 4 16
14
6 6 6
1,2,3,4,5,6,...,17,1 1,3,5,2,7,4,...,17,14,16,1 1,5,7,3,9,2,...,16,12,14,1
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 3
Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Theorem 11.7 Let Kn* be a complete directed graph, i.e. , Kn*
has n vertices and for any distinct pair x , y of vertices, exactly
one of the edges ( x , y ) or ( y , x ) is in Kn* . Such a graph (called a
tournament ) always contains a directed Hamilton path.
Proof: Let m 2 with pm a path containing m -1 edges
( v1 , v 2 ), ( v 2 , v 3 ), , ( v m 1 , v m ). If m = n, we' re finished. If
not, let v be a vertex that doesn' t appear in pm .
case 1. v v1 v2 ...vm

case 2. v1 v2 ...vk v vk+1 ...vm

case 3. v1 v2 ...vm v

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 3

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Ex. 11.27 In a round-robin tournament each player plays every
other player exactly once. We want to somehow rank the players
according to the result of the tournament.
not always possible to have a ranking where a player in a certain
position has beaten all of the opponents in later positions

a b c

but by Theorem 11.7, it is possible to list the players such that

each has beaten the next player on the list

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 3

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Theorem 11.8 Let G = (V , E ) be a loop - free graph with
|V |= n 2. If deg( x ) + deg( y ) n -1 for all x , y V , x  y , then
G has a Hamilton path.
Proof: First prove that G is connected. If not,

x y
n1 vertices n2 vertices

deg(x )  deg( y ) ( n1  1)  ( n2  1) n1  n2  2  n1  n2  1

a contradiction

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 3

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Theorem 11.8 Let G = (V , E ) be a loop - free graph with
|V |= n 2. If deg( x ) + deg( y ) n -1 for all x , y V , x  y , then
G has a Hamilton path.
Assume a path pm with m vertices v1 v2 v3 ... vm
case 1. either v v1 or vm v
case 2. v1,v2,...,vm construct a cycle either v v2 v3 ... vm
1

or v1 v2 v3 ...vt-1 vt ... vm
otherwise assume deg(v1)=k, then deg(vm)<m-k.
deg(v1)+deg(vm)<m<n-1, a contradiction
Therefore, v can be added to the cycle. v

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 3

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
n -1
Corollary 11.4. If deg( v )  for all vertices, then the graph
2
has a Hamilton path.

Theorem 11.9 Let G = (V , E ) be a loop - free undirected graph

with |V |= n 3. If deg( x ) + deg( y ) n for all nonadjacent
x , y V , then G contains contains a Hamilton cycle.
Proof: Assume G does not contain a Hamilton cycle. We add edges
to G until we arrive a subgraph H of Kn where H has no Hamilton
cycle, but for any edge e not in H, H+e has a Hamilton cycle.
For vertices a,b wher (a,b) is not an edge of H. H+(a,b) has a
Hamilton cycle and (a,b) is part of it.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 3

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles

a(=v1) b(=v2) v3 ... vn

If (b,vi) is in H, then (a,vi-1) cannot be in H. Otherwise,

b vi vn a vi-1 vi-2 v3 is a Hamilton cycle in H.

Consequently, deg H ( a )  deg H (b)  n, which means

deg G ( a )  deg G (b)  n, a contradiction.

n
Corollary 11.5 If deg( v )  for all vertices, then the graph has a
2
Hamilton cycle.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 4

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles

Corollary 11.6 If G = (V , E ) is a loop - free unirected graph with

 n - 1
|V |= n  3, and if | E |   2, then G has a Hamilton cycle.
 2 
Proof: Let a ,b  V where ( a ,b)  E . Remove all edges connected
either to a or b and then a , b. Let H = (V ' , E ' ) denote the resulting
subgraph. Then | E |=| E ' |+ deg( a ) + deg(b). Since |V ' |= n - 2,
 n - 2  n - 1
| E ' |   . Consequently,    2 | E | | E ' |+ deg( a ) + deg(b)
 2   2 
 n - 2
  + deg( a ) + deg(b). Therefore, deg( a ) + deg(b) 
 2 
 n - 1  n - 2
  2    n and G has a Hamilton cycle.
 2   2 

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 4

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
A related problem: the traveling salesman problem
a 3
1 e Find a Hamilton cycle of shortest total distance.
b 3 2 4 For example, a-b-e-c-d-a with total cost=
3 1+3+4+2+2=12.
d
5 4
c 2 graph problem vs. Euclidean plane problem
(computational geometry)

Certain geometry properties (for example, the triangle

inequality) sometimes (but not always) make it simpler.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 4

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Two famous computational geometry problems.
1. closest pair problem: which two points are nearest
2. convex hull problem

the convex hull

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 4

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.6 Graph Coloring and Chromatic Polynomials
Def. 11.22 If G=(V,E) is an undirected graph, a proper coloring
of G occurs when we color the vertices of G so that if (a,b) is an
edge in G, then a and b are colored with different colors. The
minimum number of colors needed to properly color G is called
the chromatic number of G and is written (G).
a
3 colors are needed.
e a: Red (Kn)=n
b
b: Green
(bipartite graph)=2
c: Red
d: Blue
d e: Red
c
In general, it's a very difficult problem (NP-complete).

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 4

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.6 Graph Coloring and Chromatic Polynomials
A related problem: color the map where two regions are
colored with different colors if they have same boundaries.
Four colors are enough for any map. Remain
a b a mystery for a century. Proved with the aid
B G of computer analysis in 1976.
c
Y Re f
a
d B
R f b e

c
d

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 4

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.6 Graph Coloring and Chromatic Polynomials

P(G,): the chromatic polynomial of G=the number of ways

to color G with  colors.
Ex. 11.31 (a) G=n isolated points, P(G,)=n.
(b) G=Kn, P(G,)=(-1)(-2)...(-n+1)=(n)
(c) G=a path of n vertices, P(G,)=(-1)n-1.
(d) If G is made up of components G1, G2, ..., Gk,
then P(G,)=P(G1,)P(G2,)...P(Gk,).
Ex. 11.32
e coalescing the vertices

G Ge G'e

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 4

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.6 Graph Coloring and Chromatic Polynomials
Theorem 11.10 Decomposition Theorem for Chromatic Polynomials.
If G=(V,E) is a connected graph and e is an edge, then
P(Ge,)=P(G,)+P(G'e,).
a
e coalescing the vertices

G b Ge G'e
In a proper coloring of Ge:
case 1. a and b have the same color: a proper coloring of G'e
case 2. a and b have different colors: a proper coloring of G.
Hence, P(Ge,)=P(G,)+P(G'e,).

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 4

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory
11.6 Graph Coloring and Chromatic Polynomials
Ex. 11.33
e = -

P(G,) P(Ge,) P(G'e,)

P(G,)=(-1)3-(-1)(-2)=4-43+62-3
Since P(G,1)=0 while P(G,2)=2>0, we know that (G)=2.
Ex. 11.34 e e
= - = -2

P(G,)=(4)-2(4)= (-1)(-2)2(-3) (G)=4

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 4