The Life Span: Human Development for Helping

Professionals
Sixth Edition

Chapter 9
Physical, Cognitive, and
Identity Development in
Adolescence

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Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
1.Describe sequential processes in adolescent physical
development from hormones that trigger events to
corresponding changes in the brain and body and explain how
environmental and hereditary factors affect timing of puberty.
2.Explain behavioral and emotional changes in adolescence,
including a discussion of mood, depression, and the emergence
of adult sexuality, and identify factors that shape these changes
as well as vulnerabilities that pose threats.

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Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
3.Describe changes in cognitive functioning in adolescence
and examine broad implications of these cognitive advances
including the effects of egocentrism on adolescent life.
4.Assess levels of exploration and commitment in
adolescent identity formation and support healthy and
developmentally appropriate identity construction.

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Biological Changes and Puberty
• Adolescents undergo significant biological changes, including the
onset of puberty, hormonal shifts, and brain development
– See Table 9.1
• Pubertal timing is influenced by genetic and environmental
factors
– Inactivity, nutrition, stress, exposure to certain chemicals used in
industrial production (called endocrine-disrupting chemicals or
EDCs)
▪ EDCs include flame retardants, pesticides, certain
pharmaceutical agents, lead, mercury, phthalates found in
plastic, etc.
– Higher rates of early puberty for boys and girls in the United
States
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Figure 9.1 Key Structures Affecting Changes
During Puberty
1. Kisspeptin (signaling hormone) is
released

2. Gonadotropin releasing hormone

(GnRH) stimulates the pituitary gland

3.Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

and luteinizing hormone (LH)

4. Androgens (male sex hormones,

e.g. testosterone), female sex
hormones (estrogen, progesterone)

5. Menarche and spermarche,

Secondary sex characteristics

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Growth Spurt
• Rapid increase in size; changes in body shape and proportions
• 4-year span
– Height increase of 10 inches for boys and girls
– Weight increase of 42 pounds for boys and 38 pounds for
girls
• 2 years earlier for girls than boys
• Increase in internal/external sexual dimorphism (physical
differences between sexes)

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The Changing Brain
• High plasticity, especially in areas linked to decision-making, risk-taking, and
emotional regulation (e.g., the prefrontal cortex and limbic system)
• While increased sensitivity to rewards can promote openness, learning, and
social engagement, it also heightens risk behaviors
• Adolescents with marginalized identities may encounter societal expectations or
environmental stressors that affect developmental processes differently
• Gray matter volume decreases; white matter increases
– More efficient information processing; more learning
– Some synapses pruned; other synapses strengthened

• Slow decrease in serotonin levels and rise in dopamine levels

– Can impact mood and emotional regulation

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Imbalance in Adolescent Brain Development
(1 of 2)

Different regions mature at different rates:

• Subcortical areas (limbic system and nucleus accumbens) mature faster
– Emotional reactivity, risk taking, attraction to peers
• Prefrontal cortex matures more slowly
– Planning, control function, evaluation of risk and reward
• Approach and avoidance systems mature at different rates
– Circuitry between systems (prefrontal cortex and subcortical systems) is
lagging
– Effects: increased sensation seeking and risk taking

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Imbalance in Adolescent Brain Development
(2 of 2)

• Approach and avoidance behavioral systems

– May not develop at the same pace
• Avoidance, led by amygdala, identifies danger
• Approach, driven by ventral striatum, identifies potential rewards
• Sensation-seeking: need for varied, novel, complex sensation and
experiences
– Increases in adolescence more rapidly than self-regulation
– Consistent with brain imbalance in maturation processes
• The stress system becomes more responsive to stress; particularly negative
effects of severe, unpredictable, or chronic stress during adolescence

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Figure 9.2 A Model of Timing of Functional Maturation of the
Emotional and Cognitive Control Systems of the Brain

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Clinical Considerations: Physical Changes
• Adolescence is a critical period marked by rapid physical changes that
contribute to identity, self-esteem, and overall development
• Clinicians should understand how cultural and societal expectations
contextualize adolescence, considering nuances for diverse groups
• Consider intersections of race, gender, and socioeconomic factors impacting
adolescent development, experiences, and needs
• Clinical interventions:
– Education about adolescent development and puberty
– Normalizing physical and emotional changes
– Addressing body-related anxieties, especially in diverse adolescent
populations who may face unique pressures or stigmas
– Fostering self-compassion and self-acceptance

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Information Processing: Sharpening Executive
Functions
• Improvements in executive functions continue through adolescence
– Increase processing speed, expansion of working memory, better
inhibitory ability, better attentional control
– Contribute to formal thinking: ability to identify, organize, and draw
inferences about complex abstract content
• Greater academic expectations associated with formal thinking
– Generate and test hypotheses with rigor
– Analyze works of fiction on many levels—working with figurative
language
• Influence of formal thought on adolescent life (views of religion, politics,
relationships with parents and peers)

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Constructing Ideals
• Ideals: logically organized possible systems
• Can lead to zeal for reform; can contribute to critical attitude,
skepticism about justifications others often give
• Cure for critical attitude is experience
– Ideals = not real; omit limitations of the concrete world
– Need more experiences with difficulties to become
realistic
• Adolescent egocentrism: failure to see real limits of own ideas
– Pros and cons of self-generated perfectionistic
expectations

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Advances in Metacognitive Skill: Thinking
About Thought
• Metacognition: logical thinking about an abstraction—thought
• Positive effects: scientific thinking; more careful planning and
evaluation of one’s activities
• Negative effects: other forms of egocentrism that emerge
– Imaginary audience: concern about others’ interest in
them
– Personal fable: feeling special; fantasies of special destiny
– Invincibility fable: feeling invulnerable, immortal
• Multidimensional mix of causes of adolescent egocentrism

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Sleeping—Or Not
• Circadian rhythms and homeostasis affected

• Prefer delayed sleep phase: stay up later at night, sleep in later

• Effects of adolescent sleep deprivation:

– Poorer performance (executive functions, learning tasks, emotion regulation)
– Negative mood and internalizing and externalizing problems
– Academic implications (attendance, homework debt)
– Weaker immune systems; impacted growth and healing

• Clinical recommendations for healthier sleep:

– Bedtimes before 10:00 PM
– Stopping screentime at least before bed; no screens in the room
– No activities other than sleep or relaxing in bed (no homework)
– Limit caffeine/energy drinks, especially in the evening
– Establish a sleep hygiene routine

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Emotions and Mood
• Onset of mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and self-harm peaks in
adolescence
– Stigma around mental health can prevent adolescents from seeking help
• Adolescents often experience heightened stress response systems
– Exacerbated by academic pressures, family expectations, social
challenges
– Chronic stress can negatively impact mental health and
development
– Particularly for adolescents in high-stress environments
• Clinical interventions:
– Teaching coping mechanisms and stress management strategies
– providing safe spaces to express challenges without judgment
– Culturally sensitive approaches
– Normalize mental health discussions
– Encourage adolescents
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Depression in Adolescence
• Higher rates of depressed mood and clinical depression; growing worldwide
– More common in females than in males beginning in adolescence

• Multidimensional factors impacting depression:

– Influence of stereotypes: girls feel less valued; recognize inequalities
– Body image: girls feel greater pressure and social media comparison
– Sexuality: stress about desirability; double standard
– Mixed-sex interactions: girls feel less influential in discussions
– Early sexual debut: girls experience guilt, low self-esteem, depression
– Timing: girls begin high school along with beginning of puberty
– Coping style: more often rumination for girls
– Early maturing girls: more susceptible to depression and other problems;
bigger/heavier than peers; target for sexual victimization
– Early maturing boys: some peer rejection; risk of internalizing and externalizing
problems

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Figure 9.3 Increasing Rates of Depression Reported
by U.S. High School Students From 2011 to 2021

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The Emergence of Sexuality
• Adrenarche: increase in adrenal gland activity before puberty
• Time of exploration and sensation seeking, including sexual behavior
– Young adolescents especially likely to have some sexual contact with
members of the same sex (displaying genitals, mutual masturbation)
– Time of sexual fluidity and exploration
• Clinical interventions:
– Education about safe sex practices; health and sex education
– Judgment-free, question-free access to free contraceptives
– Safe space to talk about emerging sexual feelings and desires
– Knowledge/resources about STIs, consent, teen’s rights
– Knowledge/resources to support unplanned pregnancies
– Positive representation of LGBTQIA+ in safe spaces and resources

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Identity Development: Some Basic
Considerations
• Forming an identity: figuring out what to do in life and what you’re working with
• Erikson’s idea of ego identity: the “doing” side of personality
– Choices and experiences bring you closer to or further from meaningful
sense of self
– Recognize that identity is always in revision
• Erikson’s theory (identity vs. role confusion) remains foundational but may
overlook specific challenges for minority groups who navigate multiple identities
• Clinical considerations:
– Creating space for exploring complex identities
– Validating diverse experiences
– Encouraging perspective-taking and authenticity

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Identity Status
• James Marcia: two processes embedded in identity formation
– Exploration: actively questioning identity alternatives
– Commitment: making identity choices and implementing them

• Four identity statuses

– Achievement: exploration occurred followed by commitment
– Diffusion/confusion: neither exploration nor commitment has occurred
– Foreclosure: commitment occurs without exploration
– Moratorium: exploration is occurring; no commitment has been made

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Figure 9.6 Identity Processes and Statuses

“I haven’t thought about “I’m looking at colleges and trade

college, and I really don’t care” schools, but I don’t know what I
want.”

“I took several career interest

“Everyone in my family joins surveys and decided I’m going to
the military so I’m joining the
college for psychology.”
army.”

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Friends, Family, School, and Identity
Formation
• Peer relationships and social media significantly impact adolescents' self-
perception and identity
• Pressure to conform to peer standards, which can sometimes conflict with
cultural or familial expectations
• Family majorly influences adolescent development, shaping values, identity, and
self-regulation
– For minority adolescents, family can offer cultural grounding
– Intergenerational conflicts may arise as teens seek independence
• School environment impacts identity and self-worth – positive experiences
fostering self-esteem and academic confidence
• Educational inequities based on socioeconomic status or racial background can
impede development

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Clinical Support for Identity Development
• Clinicians can encourage adolescents to develop autonomy in
decision-making
• Helping adolescents recognize both constructive and harmful
influences from peers and social media
• Therapeutic conversations can foster open communication within
families
– Consider in immigrant or culturally diverse families where
adolescents may be balancing dual cultural identities
• Psychologists might work with schools to promote inclusivity, ensure
representation, support adolescents facing academic or social
challenges within school settings, advocate for equitable resources

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Racial and Ethnic Identity Formation
• Increasing importance during adolescence and young adulthood for most
marginalized groups
• Encounters with microaggressions (subtle, indirect slights) and macroaggressions
(direct insults, physical attacks) and the impact on identity formation
• Clinical considerations:
– Culturally responsive interventions recognize and respect the unique
backgrounds
– Building trust and fostering a nonjudgmental environment
– Provide resources and support that validate cultural identities
– Challenge societal stereotypes that may impact self-worth
– Acknowledge systemic barriers (educational, racial, economic, etc.) and
inequities
– Empowering adolescents to understand and resist negative societal
messages
– Conversation about identity formation and encouraging exploration
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Sue, Atkinson, and Morton's Five-Stage Minority Identity
Development Model
Stage Description Key Features

Individuals prefer the dominant culture's • Preference for dominant cultural norms
1. Conformity values and norms, while devaluing or • Discomfort or devaluation of their own minority culture
ignoring their own cultural identity. • May believe in the superiority of the dominant culture

Individuals begin to question and conflict • Growing awareness of cultural differences

2. Dissonance with dominant cultural values. They start to • Internal conflict regarding their own cultural identity and
experience confusion about their identity. the dominant culture
• Challenging previously accepted norms

Individuals reject the dominant culture and • Strong embrace of minority culture
3. Resistance and immerse themselves in their own cultural • Rejection of dominant cultural values
Immersion identity, often feeling anger or resentment • Possible anger or resentment toward the dominant
towards the dominant group. group
• Increase in cultural pride

Individuals reflect on their cultural identity • Exploration of identity with greater depth
and seek a more balanced approach, • Recognition of limitations in complete immersion
4. Introspection recognizing both positive and negative • More nuanced understanding of both cultures and their
aspects of both cultures. impact on self-concept

• Acceptance and integration of multiple aspects of

5. Synergetic Individuals achieve a sense of identity that identity
Articulation and integrates their minority identity with • Cultural pride and self-confidence
Awareness positive aspects of the dominant culture. • Positive relationships with both minority and dominant
cultures

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Cross' Black Identity Development Model
Stage Name Description Key Features
The individual devalues or is unaware of -Preference for dominant
their Black identity. White culture
Stage 1 Pre-Encounter They may identify with the dominant - Low salience of Black identity
White culture. - Desire to assimilate

The individual experiences an event or -Experiences racism

series of events that challenge their or discrimination
Stage 2 Encounter previous beliefs about race, leading to a - Cognitive dissonance
desire to explore Black identity. about identity
- Exploration begins

The individual immerses themselves in

Black culture, rejecting White culture. - Idealization of Black culture
Stage 3 Immersion-Emersion In the emersion phase, they develop a - Rejection of White culture
more balanced perspective. - Intense exploration of Black identity

The individual achieves a secure, - Secure Black identity

Stage 4 Internalization confident Black identity, accepting both - Acceptance of multiple identities
their Blackness and other cultural aspects. - Less defensive stance toward others

-Strong commitment to
The individual takes action to promote Black empowerment
Internalization- social justice and Black empowerment,
Stage 5 Commitment - Social and political activism
integrating their identity with activism. - Integration of identity and
action

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Helms’ White Identity Model
Stage Description Key Features
Initial stage; limited awareness of racial identity
or privileges associated with Whiteness; Unexamined privilege, colorblind thinking,
1. Contact lack of awareness about racial dynamics.
colorblind attitudes may be present.

Recognition of racial differences and discomfort

about racism; may lead to guilt or denial as Cognitive dissonance, feelings of guilt or
2. Disintegration shame, denial or avoidance of racial issues.
inconsistencies with one’s beliefs are confronted.

Attempts to resolve dissonance by idealizing

one’s racial group and viewing other groups Idealization of Whiteness, defensiveness,
3. Reintegration through stereotypes; defensive attitudes are reliance on stereotypes to rationalize
common. inequities.

Awareness of White identity and

acknowledgment of racial inequalities; limited Intellectual understanding of racism,
4. Pseudo- acknowledgment of privilege, desire to help
Independence understanding of systemic racism; seeks to
address racism intellectually. but limited by personal biases.

Deeper exploration of Whiteness and

commitment to anti-racist work; understanding Deep self-reflection, increased empathy,
5. Immersion/ commitment to anti-racist learning and
Emersion privilege more deeply; beginning to connect
theory with action. advocacy, seeking community allies.

Final stage; internalization of an anti-racist Fully developed anti-racist identity, active in

6. Autonomy identity; ongoing personal commitment to social social justice work, continuous learning and
justice and actively challenging racial injustices. self-accountability.

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Kim’s Asian American Identity Development Model
Stage Description Key Features

Initial awareness of ethnic background, Ethnic pride from familial and cultural
1. Ethnic Awareness typically based on family and community traditions; positive view of one’s
influences during early childhood. ethnic background.

Typically occurring during school years, Preference for White cultural values
2. White individuals may internalize societal biases and norms; distancing from own
and seek acceptance in the majority ethnic group to fit in; feelings of
Identification culture. shame.

Awareness of racism and oppression; Heightened awareness of

3. Awakening to critical questioning of majority values, discrimination; rejection of White
Social-Political often sparked by personal or societal identification; interest in social justice
Consciousness events. and advocacy.

A renewed sense of pride in Asian Engagement with Asian American

heritage; individuals seek to explore and identity, culture, and community;
4. Redirection connect more deeply with their cultural pride in one’s heritage; forming
background and community. supportive networks.

Integrated identity where both Asian and Positive ethnic identity alongside
5. Incorporation American aspects of self are balanced majority culture; self-acceptance;
and accepted as part of a whole identity. reduction of internal conflict.

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Ferdman and Gallegos’ (2001) Latino Identity
Orientations Model
Orientation Description Key Features
• Embrace both Latino and dominant culture
Individuals integrate both Latino and dominant
culture in a balanced manner, feeling comfortable • High bicultural competence
Latino Integrated
in both identities. • Flexibility in navigating both cultural contexts
• Pride in Latino heritage while appreciating other cultures
Strong identification with Latino culture, while • Centrality of Latino identity
Latino Identified maintaining some distance from the dominant • Prioritizes Latino cultural values and norms
culture. Some distancing from the dominant culture
•
• Strong attachment to a particular national origin or subgroup
Identification with a specific Latino subgroup (e.g.,
May feel less connected to other Latino groups
Subgroup Identified Mexican, Puerto Rican) rather than a broader pan- •
Latino identity. • Identity centered around specific ethnic or national
background

Individuals have a limited sense of Latino identity • Lack of clear identification with Latino or dominant culture
and may view themselves as “other,” not fully • May experience confusion or ambiguity about cultural identity
Latino as Other identifying with either their Latino culture or the
• Feels "different" but not strongly aligned with a particular
dominant one.
cultural group

• Minimal acknowledgment of Latino identity

Individuals do not recognize or emphasize the
Undifferentiated/ importance of ethnicity or race in their identity, • May downplay cultural differences and emphasize
Denial focusing instead on similarities with the dominant assimilation
culture. • Preference for seeing people as individuals rather
than
through an ethnic or racial lens
• Strong identification with dominant white culture
Individuals adopt the values and norms of the
dominant white culture and reject or devalue their • Devaluation or rejection of Latino culture
White-Identified
Latino heritage. • May experience internalized racism or view Latino identity
negatively

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Cass' Model of Gay and Lesbian Identity Development
Stage Description Key Features
Initial awareness of same-sex attractions; Uncertainty, confusion, denial; seeking
1. Identity Confusion internal questioning of one’s sexual information about same-sex orientation,
orientation. may feel isolated or anxious.

Comparison of self with heterosexual

norms; awareness of differences from Feelings of “not fitting in,” isolation, or
2. Identity Comparison others; often involves self-alienation or feeling “different”; exploring acceptance vs.
hiding one’s orientation. rejection of identity.

Greater recognition and acceptance of

same-sex attractions; seeking out other Increased self-acceptance; connecting with
3. Identity Tolerance LGBTQ+ individuals and communities for LGBTQ+ community; still cautious about
support. self-disclosure.

Positive acceptance of a gay or lesbian Reduced internal conflict, selective

4. Identity Acceptance identity; more openness about orientation disclosure; seeking supportive
with select friends and family members. environments and relationships.

Embracing LGBTQ+ identity with pride;

often accompanied by a sense of activism Strong LGBTQ+ community connection,
5. Identity Pride and resistance to homophobic or increased visibility, pride; may resist social
heteronormative pressures. stigma or discrimination.

Integration of LGBTQ+ identity with other

facets of self; identity becomes one aspect Comfort in identity, balanced self-view,
6. Identity Synthesis of overall self-concept, leading to a reduced defensiveness, fully integrated
balanced, authentic self. LGBTQ+ identity with daily life.

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Troiden's Model of Gay Identity Development
Stage Description Key Features
Early awareness of feeling different from
same-sex peers, typically during Sense of being “different” from others,
1. Sensitization childhood; may include an early
recognition of non-heteronormative often without understanding; early
feelings or behaviors. confusion or discomfort.

Adolescence typically brings a realization Awareness of same-sex attraction;

2. Identity of same-sex attraction; leads to inner internal struggle, denial, or
conflict or questioning about sexual experimentation; high levels of
Confusion orientation. confusion.

Acceptance of a gay identity; involves

selective disclosure and self-acceptance, Self-labeling as gay or lesbian; selective
3. Identity coming out to trusted individuals;
Assumption with an increased association with other
LGBTQ+ individuals and communities. exploration of LGBTQ+ spaces.

Full acceptance and integration of a gay

identity into overall self-concept; Public self-acceptance; commitment to
4. Identity
individual may experience pride and identity; openness in personal
Commitment satisfaction in identity. relationships, increased social activism.

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