Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter

B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers

Guiding Questions:

How do macroscopic observations provide a model of

the microscopic properties of a substance?

How is energy transferred within and between systems?

How can observations of one physical quantity be used

to determine the other properties of a system?
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Understandings:
• molecular theory in solids, liquids and gases
• density ρ
• Kelvin and Celsius scales are used to express
temperature
• the change in temperature of a system is the same when
expressed with the Kelvin or Celsius scales
• Kelvin temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of particles
• that the internal energy of a system is the total
intermolecular potential energy arising from the forces
between the molecules plus the total random kinetic
energy of the molecules arising from their random motion
• temperature difference determines the direction of the
resultant thermal energy transfer between bodies
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Understandings:
• a phase change represents a change in particle behaviour
arising from a change in energy at constant temperature
• quantitative analysis of thermal energy transfers Q with
the use of specific heat capacity c and specific latent heat
of fusion and vaporization of substances L
• conduction, convection and thermal radiation are the
primary mechanisms for thermal energy transfer
• conduction in terms of the difference in the kinetic energy
of particles
• quantitative analysis of rate of thermal energy transfer by
conduction in terms of the type of material and cross-
sectional area of the material and the temperature
gradient
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Understandings:
• qualitative description of thermal energy transferred by
convection due to fluid density differences
• quantitative analysis of energy transferred by radiation as
a result of the emission of electromagnetic waves from the
surface of a body, which in the case of a black body can
be modelled by the Stefan-Boltzmann law
• the concept of apparent brightness b
• luminosity L of a body
• the emission spectrum of a black body and the
determination of the temperature of the body using Wien’s
displacement law
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Guidance:
• An elementary explanation of the physical differences
between solids, liquids and gases in terms of the
molecular model is required.
• The conversion of Kelvin and Celsius scales is
required.
• The terms melting, freezing, boiling, condensing and
evaporation should be familiar.
• The luminosity of a star can be expressed in watts or
in terms of the luminosity of the Sun L⊙.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Data booklet reference:
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Linking Questions:
• How is the understanding of systems applied to other
areas of physics?
• How can the phase change of water be used in the
process of electricity generation?
• What applications does the Stefan-Boltzmann law
have in astrophysics and in the use of solar energy?
• How can observations of one physical quantity allow
for the determination of another? (NOS)
• What role does the molecular model play in
understanding other areas of physics? (NOS)
• How has international collaboration helped to develop
the understanding of the nature of matter? (NOS)
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers intermolecular
bond
Molecular theory of solids, liquids and gases
The three phases of matter are solid,
liquid, and gas.
In a solid the molecules can only
vibrate. They cannot translate.
In a liquid the molecules can vibrate solid
and move about freely in a fixed volume.
In going from a solid to a liquid, some
of the intermolecular bonds are broken,
giving the molecules more freedom of
motion.
In going from a liquid to a gas, most
of the intermolecular bonds are broken.liquid
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Phase change
The process of going from a solid to a liquid is called
melting.
The process of going from a liquid to a gas is called
boiling.
Each process can be reversed.
PHASE CHANGE PROCESS EXAMPLE
solid  liquid melting ice to water
liquid  solid freezing water to ice
liquid  gas boiling water to steam
gas  liquid condensing steam to droplets
solid  gas sublimation frost evaporation
gas  solid deposition frost
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Internal energy
All substances are composed of individual
molecules that are in vibration.
As we heat up a substance its vibrations
become more energetic. This is an increase
in the kinetic energy of the molecules.
Simultaneously, as heat energy is being added
the molecules are also moving farther apart. This
is an increase in the potential energy of the substance.
The two energies together are called the internal
energy of the substance. Thus EINT = EK + EP.
When thermal energy (heat) is added to a substance it
is stored as internal energy.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Internal energy
EINT = EK + EP. total internal energy

Total Internal Energy

Potential Energy Kinetic Energy
(due to inter-molecular (due to vibration and
forces) translation

Think of Hooke’s The thermometer

law F = -kx and measures internal
phase change kinetic energy
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Average kinetic energy and temperature
Since ideal gases have no intermolecular forces, their
internal energy is stored completely
as kinetic energy.
The individual molecules making up an
ideal gas all travel at different speeds:
Without proof, the average kinetic
energy EK of each ideal gas molecule
has the following form:
𝐸 𝐾 =(
2 )
3
𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 Average kinetic
Where k = 1.3810 J K .
-23 -1
energy of ideal gas
B

kB is called the Boltzmann constant.

Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Average kinetic energy and temperature
𝐸 𝐾 = (3
2 )
𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 Average kinetic
Where kB = 1.3810-23 J K-1.
energy of ideal gas
EXAMPLE: 2.50 moles of hydrogen gas is contained in
a fixed volume of 1.25 m3 at a temperature of 175 C.
What is the average kinetic energy of each atom?
SOLUTION: T(K) = 175 + 273 = 448 K.

J
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Temperature and absolute temperature
Because absorption of thermal energy Boiling
(heat) causes materials to expand, the 100° 212°

fluid in a thermometer can be used to

CELSIUS SCALE

FAHRENHEIT
indirectly measure temperature.

SCALE
Since water is a readily-available
substance that can be frozen, and
boiled within a narrow range of
temperatures, many thermometers are
calibrated using these temperatures. 0°
Freezing
32°
We will be using the Celsius scale
in physics because it is a simpler scale.
Temperature only reveals the internal kinetic energy.
E x p a n s i o n reveals internal potential energy.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Temperature and absolute temperature
When gas is heated in an enclosed
space its pressure p increases.
The following experiment plots pressure
p vs. temperature T in Celsius.
We can extrapolate the graph.
Now we repeat using different gases.
p 10 20
0 30

T (°C)
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Temperature and absolute temperature
The lowest pressure p that can exist is zero.
Surprisingly, the temperature at which any gas attains
a pressure of zero is the same, regardless of the gas.
The Celsius temperature at which the pressure is zero
(for all gases) is -273 °C.

-273.15 °C

T (°C)
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Temperature and absolute temperature
Because the lowest pressure that can exist is zero, this
temperature is the lowest temperature that can exist,
and it is called absolute zero.
A new temperature scale that has absolute
zero as its lowest value is called the 0° C Freezing 273 K
Kelvin temperature scale.

CELSIUS SCALE

KELVIN SCALE
p

-273.15 °C

Absolute
zero
-273°C 0K
T (°C)
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Converting between Kelvin and Celsius temperatures
The simple relationship between the Kelvin and Celsius
scales is given here:
T(K) = T(°C) + 273 Kelvin and Celsius relationship
FYI Note that there is no degree Freezing
0° C 273 K
symbol on Kelvin temperatures.

CELSIUS SCALE

KELVIN SCALE
EXAMPLE: Convert 100°C to Kelvin,
and 100 K to C°.
SOLUTION:

Absolute
· T(K) = T(°C) + 273

zero
T = 100 + 273 = 373 K.
-273°C 0K
· 100 = T(°C) + 273
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Specific heat capacity
Different materials absorb heat energy in different
ways.
This means that if we have two different substances
having the same mass m, and each absorbs the same
amount of heat Q, their increase in temperature T may
be different.
We define the specific heat capacity c of a substance
as the amount of thermal energy needed per unit mass
to change the temperature by 1 degree.
Q = mcT specific heat capacity c defined
Each material has its own unique value for c.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Specific heat capacity
Here are some specific heats for various materials.
Specific Heats c of Substances at 20°C and 1 atm.
Substance J / kg·C°
Air (at 50°C) 1050
Water (at 15°C) 4186
Steam (at 110°C) 2010
Ice (at -5°C) 2100
Wood 1680
Ethyl Alcohol 2430
Steel 460

FYI
Note that specific heat units for c are (J kg-1 C°-1).
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Calculating energies involving specific heat capacity
Q = mcT specific heat capacity c defined
EXAMPLE: Air has a density of about  = 1.2 kg m-3.
How much heat, in joules, is needed to raise the
temperature of the air in a 3.0 m by 4.0 m by 5.0 m
room by 5°C?
SOLUTION:
· From the previous table we see that c = 1050.
· The change in temperature is given: T = 5°C.
· We get the mass from or
m = V = (1.2)(3)(4)(5) = 72 kg.
· Q = mcT = (72)(1050)(5) = 378000 J or 380 kJ.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Calculating energies involving specific heat capacity
Q = mcT specific heat capacity c defined
PRACTICE: Suppose we have a 200.-kg steel ingot and
a 200.-kg block of wood, both at room temperature
(20.0°C). If we add 1,143,000 J of heat (the energy of a
SnickersTM bar) to each object, what will its final
temperature be?
SOLUTION:
For both, Q = mcT = mc(T – T0).
Steel: 1143000 = 200(460)(T – 20)
12.4 = T – 20 or T = 32.4°C.
Wood: 1143000 = 200(1680)(T – 20)
3.40 = T – 20 or T = 23.4°C.
 12

Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter 9 3

B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers 6

Sketching and interpreting phase change graphs

Suppose a thermometer is frozen in ice, and the ice is
further cooled to a temperature of -20°C. We slowly add
heat, and plot the temperature vs. the heat Q added:
Since the thermometer measures kinetic
energy, and since the temperature doesn’t
change during the phase change, the heat 100ºC
must be getting stored ONLY as potential
Co 0ºC
energy during phase change. nd
e
Bo ns
T ilin ati
gP Po on
INTERNAL ENERGY oin int
STEAM t
100ºC
POTENTIAL KINETIC WATER
ENERGY ENERGY 0ºC
MeltingFreezing Po Q
ICE Point int
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Phase change in terms of molecular behavior
As a model to help explain phase change consider a
molecule in an open box which can move left and right
but must remain “captured” in the box.
As more heat is stored as potential energy, the particle
in our model gains height.
Finally, the potential
energy is great During During
enough to break the phase phase
intermolecular bonds change change
and change the phase temp- potential
of the substance. erature energy
The molecule is free! does not does
change change
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Specific latent heat T
Latent heat means hidden heat, Boiling Point
by which we mean that there is no
temperature indication that heat is Q
Melting Point
being lost or gained by a substance.
The specific latent heat L is defined in this formula:
Q = mL specific latent heat L defined
Note that since there is no temperature change during
a phase change, there is no T in our formula. The units
for L are (J kg-1).
FYI
Use Q = mL during phase change (when T = 0).
Use Q = mcT otherwise (when T ≠ 0).
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Specific latent heat
Since there are two phase changes (two plateaus),
each substance has two latent heats.
Latent Heats Lof Various Substances at 1 atm.
Melting Lf Boiling Lv
Substance Point °C J/kg Point °C J/kg
Water 0 3.33105 100 22.6105
Mercury -39 0.12105 357 2.7105
Oxygen -219 0.14105 -183 2.1105
Gold 1063 0.65105 2660 15.8105
Lf is the latent heat of fusion. T
Lv is the latent heat of vaporization. Boiling Point Lv
The temperatures associated with Lf
Q
the phase changes are also given. Melting Point
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Specific latent heat
EXAMPLE: Compare boiling and evaporation.
SOLUTION:
Boiling takes place within the whole liquid at
the same temperature, called the boiling point.
Evaporation occurs only at the surface of
a liquid and can occur at any temperature.
Evaporation can be enhanced by increasing the
surface area, warming the liquid, or having air
movement at the surface.
Boiling and evaporation both remove the same
amount of heat energy from the liquid. This is
why sweating removes excess body heat so well!
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Calculating energies involving specific latent heat
Q = mL specific latent heat L defined
EXAMPLE:
Bob has designed a 525-kg ice chair. How
much heat must he remove from water at
0°C to make the ice chair (also at 0°C)?
SOLUTION:
· In a phase change T = 0 so we use Q = mL.
· Since the phase change is freezing, we use Lf.
· For the water-to-ice phase change Lf = 3.33105 J kg-
1
.
· Thus Q = mL = (525)(3.33105) = 175106 J.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
Thermal energy can be transferred from a warmer
mass to a cooler mass by three means: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
This energy transfer is called heating and cooling.
Only thermal radiation transfers heat without any
physical medium such as solid, liquid or gas.
EXAMPLE: The heat from a wood-burning stove can be
felt from all the way across the room because
photons carrying infrared energy can travel
through empty space. When these photons
strike you, they are absorbed as heat. This
process of thermal energy transfer is called
thermal radiation. See Topic 8.2.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
When two objects of different temperatures touch,
thermal energy is transferred from the hotter object to
the cooler object through a process called conduction.
When atoms of one portion of a medium are in contact
with vibrating atoms of another portion, the vibration is
transferred from atom to atom.
HC H
O
OL O
TD T
Direction of heat flow
High T portions vibrate more than low T portions, so
we can imagine the vibration “impulse” to travel through
the material, from high T to low T.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
Metals are good heat conductors because they have lots
of free electrons (the same reason they are good electrical
conductors).
The rate at which heat energy is transferred depends
directly on the cross-sectional area A and inversely with
the length d of the conductor.

HC H
O
O
L d A
O
TD T
That rate, , is also proportional to the difference in
temperature , between the two ends.

∆𝑄 ∆𝑇 thermal conduction
= 𝑘𝐴
∆𝑡 ∆ 𝑥
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
Consider a material that acts as a conductor of heat
from the hot object to the cold object.
12

9 3
20°C
40°C
60°C 100°C
80°C
60°C
6
Direction of heat flow
During the process the hot object loses energy and
cools, while the cold object gains energy and warms.
At the end of the process the two ends have reached
thermal equilibrium at which point there is no more net
transfer of heat.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
EXAMPLE: A brick has 2.50 m
a thermal conductivity 0.500 m
of k = 0.710 J / m·s·C°,
20°C
and the dimensions 0.750 m 100°C
shown.
Two heat sources are placed in contact with the ends
of the brick, as shown. Find the rate at which heat
energy is conducted through the brick.
SOLUTION: m2. Why?
Then

J s-1.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
Another form of heat transfer is called convection.
Convection requires a fluid (liquid or gas) as a medium
of heat transfer.
For example, hot air is less dense
than cold air, so it rises.
But as it rises it cools, and so
becomes denser and sinks.
We thus obtain a cycle, which Convection
forms a circulation called a current
convection current.
Convection currents drive many
interesting physical systems as
the next slides illustrate.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
EXAMPLE: Atmospheric convection - thunderheads.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
EXAMPLE:
Atmospheric
convection -
nuclear
detonation.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
EXAMPLE: Oceanic convection - currents.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
EXAMPLE: Solar convection – sunspots and flares.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
EXAMPLE: Mantle convection – plate tectonics.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Plate tectonics - convection
The residual heat from
the formation of Earth,
and the heat generated
by radioactive decay
deep within the mantle,
combine to produce the
perfect conditions for
convection currents.
Even though the mantle
acts similar to a solid in
many ways, it is really a special
kind of fluid that would be
liquid like lava if it weren’t for the tremendous
pressure it is under due to overlaying layers.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Plate tectonics - convection
Specific to the NGSS, and related to convection
currents, we have plate tectonics, which is the study of
crustal plate motion over the surface of Earth over time.
It is these convection currents in the mantle that drive
plate tectonics.
Spreading center Subduction zone
Crustal Plate Crustal Plate Crustal Plate

Mantle

Spreading centers are where plates separate.

Subduction zones are where plates collide.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Plate tectonics - convection
Spreading centers
are usually located in
the ocean and
produce landforms
called oceanic
ridges.
Oceanic ridges form
because as the oceanic
plates separate, magma can well up into the void.

Ocean
Oceanic Plate Oceanic Plate Crust

Mantle
New crust is formed at the spreading centers.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Plate tectonics - convection
A true subduction
zone is where one of
two colliding plates
is driven underneath
the other.
Mountains created
by the buckling crust
can form, as well as
volcanoes, powered by melting crustal material.
Ocean trench
Ocean
Ocean Plate Either Plate Crust
Mantle
Mantle
Ocean trenches form at subduction zones.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Plate tectonics - convection
Generally when oceanic
plates collide with land plates,
the oceanic plate is the one
that is driven underneath in the
subduction zone.
Plates can also collide and
crumple, forming mountains without subduction.
These are usually two land plates colliding.

Land Plate Land Plate Crust

Mantle
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Plate tectonics
Pangaea is the name given
to the early landform that was
more or less all the present-day
continents placed close
together.
Because of continental drift (on
the average of two inches per
year), Pangaea has split up into
the present-day continents,
which are still in motion.
In the following animation, note
how the Indie plate collides with the Eurazja
plate. What mountain range do you think this collision
created?
 Ma

Credit: Jean Besse, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris

Credit: Alex Copley, Ashley Kennard, Jessica Kim, and Lindsey
Stancliff
PRACTICE: How do you think continental drift might
affect the evolution of living species?
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Black-body radiation
Solids can absorb many more wavelengths
than the atmospheric gases.
Depending on the color of a solid you can
determine what wavelengths it cannot absorb.
For example, a green object reflects (and
therefore does not absorb) green light.

When bathed in white light a solid is the color of the

A black object light that all
absorbs it cannot absorb.
wavelengths.
FYI
A black-body absorbs all wavelengths. As it heats up it
emits all wavelengths, called black-body radiation.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Black-body radiation 50
4000 00 K
300 K
Solids can be heated to incandescence 200 0 K
(glowing) and different temperatures 100 0 K
0K
will have different visible radiation.
If we heat a black-body to
incandescence we observe:
Two trends emerge:
-The higher the tempera-

visible radiation
Intensity
UV radiation

IR radiation
ture the greater the intensity
at all wavelengths.
-The higher temperature the
smaller the wavelength of
the maximum intensity. 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Black-body radiation
A simple law called Wein’s displacement law tells us
the wavelength of the maximum intensity max for
blackbodies at temperature T in Kelvin:
Wien’s displacement law
700 600 Visible Light 500 400
Wavelength  / nm
EXAMPLE: The sun’s surface

Intensity
has a temperature of 4500 K.
What is the prevalent
wavelength of light?
SOLUTION:

nm. 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Solving problems involving Wien’s displacement law

 Higher
temperature =
higher intensity so Y
is above X.

 Higher
temperature =
smaller wave-
length at peak
Topic 8: Energy production
8.2 – Thermal energy transfer
The Stefan-Boltzmann law
Without proof, the Stefan-Boltzmann law is as follows:
4 the Stefan-
𝑃= 𝐴𝑇 where  = 5.6710-8 W m-2 K-4. Boltzmann law
 is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
The Stefan-Boltzmann law shows the relationship
between the temperature of a black-body and the power
emitted by the black-body’s surface area.
FYI
A black-body emits as much power as it absorbs.
Thus the Stefan-Boltzmann law works for both
emission and absorption problems.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Solving problems involving the Stefan-Boltzmann law
EXAMPLE: Mercury has a radius of 2.50106 m. Its
sunny side has a temperature of 400°C (673 K) and its
shady side -200°C (73 K). Treating it like a
black-body, find its power.
SOLUTION:
m2.
For use K
W.

FYI
Since no body is at absolute zero (K = 0) it follows from
the Stefan-Boltzmann law that all bodies radiate.
Be sure that T is in Kelvin, not Celsius.
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Luminosity
The energy radiated by a star is emitted uniformly in all
directions, just as we would see with a light bulb
The total energy emitted by the star per unit time (i.e.
the power) is called the luminosity of the star, L.
Our Sun has a luminosity of 3.90 x 1026W
We can measure brightness and determine distance to
learn the luminosity of a star. (as you will see)
Luminosity is based on radius and temperature of a
star.
If r is equal, then higher temp = higher L
If temp is equal, then greater r = higher L
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Determining Distances
Luminosity
Relationships
 Allow for a comparison of the Luminosities of different
stars
• A is the surface area of the star (SA of a sphere is
)
• T is the surface temperature of the star
• σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann Constant = 5.67 x 10-
8
Wm-2K-4
• R is the radius of the Star
 From this we can see that the luminosity of a star
depends on it’s temperature and size!
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Apparent Brightness
By the time the energy released by a star arrives at
Earth it will be spread out over a sphere of radius d.

 The energy received per unit time per unit area at the
Earth is called the apparent brightness, b

𝐿 Apparent
𝑏= 2
4 𝜋 𝑑 Brightness

L = luminosity
d = distance to the star
Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.1 – Thermal Energy Transfers
Apparent Brightness

 Assuming two stars of equal L, the closer star has a

greater brightness

We would have to know the L of a star and its

brightness to determine distance, but since all stars are
not equally bright or luminous, we cannot use the
formula in that way.

However, using the Stephan-Boltzman Law, we can

determine luminosity and then use the luminosity value
and apparent brightness to determine distances.