Chapter 4

Energy Analysis of
Closed Systems

1
 Moving Boundary Work .1

Two requirements for Mechanical work to exist

1. There must be a force on the boundary.
 Example: the expansion of a gas into an evacuated space

(is not work since there is no force).

2. The boundary must move.

 Example: Fixed piston in the presence of external force (is

not work since the boundary did not move).

2
Computing Moving Boundary Work
Wb  Wb  Fds
1
2
1
2

F
 Ads
1
2

W  PdV1
2

 The area under the process curve

on a P-V diagram represents the
boundary work.

 Boundary work is path dependent.

3
Net Work done in a cycle
 The work done by the system
during the expansion process
(area under path A) is greater
than the work done on the
system during the compression
part of the cycle (area under
path B),

 The difference between

these two is the net work
done during the cycle (the
colored area). WA > 0 since V = V1 –V2 > 0
WB < 0 since V = V2 –V1 < 0
 The process has to be a quasi- Wnet = WA +WB = Area
equilibrium process. bounded by the curve
4
Computing the work for some special
processes

Constant volume
Constant pressure

Isothermal

Polytropic

5
Constant Volume Process

P 1 2
Wb  PdV 0
1

6
Constant Pressure Process

P 1 2

W
V

2 2
Wb  PdV P dV PV2  V1 
1 1 7
Isothermal Process
Wb  PdV
2 But for an mRT Cons
1
ideal gas P 
V V
P 1
mRT
Wb 
1
2
dV
V
Wb mRT lnV2 / V1 
2

V
Wb PV lnV2 / V1 
8
Polytropic Process
For General Gases, P and V are
often related as

PV Cons tan t
n

Const
P n
V
 P2V2  P1V1
 1 n , n 1
dV 
Wb 1 PdV 1 Const n 
2 2

V  PV ln V2  , n 1
 V 
 1 9
Computing the work of a Gas expanding
against a Spring
Fspring
Patm x Wpiston
Patm x0 Wpiston
Pa A p
Wpiston
Dx

P1 P

Spring just Spring exerting Pi Ap

touching piston force on piston

 x Ap  x  / Ap 10

 Computing the Spring work
alone
2
Patm x
Wpiston

Dx 2
1
P
Pressure
W

No Spring exerting Spring exerting

force on piston force on piston

V1 V2 V2
Volume
11
Computing the Spring work
alone
Wspring Fdx
F kx
Wspring Fdx x kxdx
1 x 2
1

1
Wspring  k ( x2  x1 )
2 2

2
12
…So far
 We’ve considered various forms of energy
 Q (heat)
 W (work)
 E (Energy)
 We haven’t tried to relate them during a
process
 They are related through the
 FIRST LOW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 (CONSEVATION OF ENERGY PRINCIPLE)

13
First low of thermodynamics -2
for Closed Systems

Wb= 4 kJ

14
Before proceeding further, let us fix
the direction of Energy Transfer
 Heat transferred in to the system is positive
 Q is +ve
in
 Heat transferred out of the system is negative
 Q
out is -ve
 Work done on the system increases energy of the
system.
 W is -ve
in
 Work done by the system decreases energy of the
system.
 W
out is +ve
15
  Based on the previous experimental observations,
the conservation of energy principle may be
expressed as:

 Total Energy   Total Energy   Change in the total 

      
 Entering the System   Leaving the System   system energy 

Ein  Eout Esys

On a rate basis

E in  E out E sys

Rate of net energy transfer by Rate of change in total
heat, work and mass energy of the system 16
Let us discuss the right hand side of the first
low equation, i. e.  E

E U  KE  PE

Usually the KE and PE are small

E U mu
17
 Let us turn to the Left hand side of the 1 st
low equation

Ein  Eout E

Ein Eout

0 0
Qin  Win  Emass ,in  ( Qout  Wout  Emass ,out ) E
Emass=0 for closed
system
Qin  Win  ( Qout  Wout ) E
If we rearrange, we get
Qin  Qout  Win  Wout E 18
The First low of thermodynamics
Qin  Qout  Win  Wout E
Assuming Qin>Qout and Wout> Win

Qnet ,in  Wnet ,out E

usually we drop the subscripts,
hence
Q  W E General Form (KJ)

Q  W E per unit time (or on a Rate basis) KJ/s=

Watt
q  w e per unit mass basis
(KJ/kg)
q  w de differential form 19
 KEY CONCEPT

Q  W E
20
Energy Change for a system
undergoing a cycle

 Q-W =U
 But U = U2-U1=0
(initial state and final
states are the same)
 Hence : Q=W

21
Specific Heats -3
 Definition: It is the energy
required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass by
one degree
 Units
 kJ/(kg 0C) or kJ/(kg K)
 cal/(g 0C) or cal/(g K)
 Btu/(lbm 0F) or Btu/(lbm R)

 Simple mathematical definition:

E mCT
22
Constant volume and Constant
pressure specific heats, Cv and Cp
Cv can be viewed as energy required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass by one
degree as the volume is maintained
.constant
 u 
Cv  
 T  v

Cp can be viewed as energy required to

raise the temperature of a unit mass by one
degree as the pressure is maintained
.constant
Cp > Cv
 h 
C p  
 T  p h u  Pv 23
 Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific -4
heats of ideal gas
.Cv dependence on T for an ideal gas
 u 
Recall that : Cv  
 T  v
Joule found experimentally that the
internal energy of an ideal gas is a function
of temperature only

u u (T )
Hence, Cv is at most function of T for an
ideal gas. du
The partial derivative becomes ordinary
Cv 
derivative for an ideal gas.
dT
24

.
.Cp dependence on T for an ideal gas
 h 
Recall that C p  
 T  p
h u  Pv
h u( T )  RT h( T )
Hence, Cp is at most function of T for
dh
an ideal gas. Cp 
The partial derivative becomes dT
ordinary derivative for an ideal gas. 25
Internal energy and Enthalpy as functions of
.Cv and Cp for an ideal gas

du Cv (T ) dT
2
u u 2  u1 Cv T dT
1

dh C p (T ) dT
T2
h h2  h1  C p T dT
T1
26
 To carry out these integrations, we need Cv
and Cp as functions of T.
 Analytical expressions are available in

Table A-2c.
 In this table, Cp is given as

Cp = a + bT + cT2 + dT3
 The constants a, b, c, and d are tabulated

for various gases.

27
 Method 1
2 2
h C p dT (a  bT  cT  dT )dT 2 3
1 1

h aT 
bT  T  2
2
1
2
  cT
2
3
T
1
3
  d T
2
4
T 1
4

2 3 4
This is inconvenient!! Only do it if you really need to be very
accurate!!

Isn’t there an easier way?

28
 Method 2
 These integrations of Eqs. 2-34 and
2-35 were tabulated in Table A-17
page 849.

T T
u  u o  C v dT h  ho  C p dT
T 0 0 T0 0

 T0=0 K was chosen to be an arbitrary reference.

 This choice has no effect on
 The u and h data are given in KJ/kg for air.
 Other gases in KJ/Kmol.
u and h 29
Method 3
 Assume Cp and Cv is
constant over a short
temperature range (a few
hundred degrees or less).
 The constant specific heats
are evaluated at the
average temperature
(T1+T2)/2.
 u2-u1=Cv,av(T2-T1)
 h2-h1=Cp,av(T2-T1)

30
Three Ways to Calculate u

31
Specific heat relations of an Ideal Gas

Cp is modeled in the Appendix A-2(c) as a

function of temperature – so you could calculate
dh, but what if you want to calculate du?
You’d need Cv. There is no corresponding Cv
table !!
Recall that h=u+RT
dh = du + RdT
C dT=C dT+ RdT
p v

C =C + R
32
Specific Heat Ratio
Cp
k
Cv
k also varies with temperature, but this
variation is very mild.
k = 1.4 for diatomic gases (like air)
k = 1.667 for noble gases

33
Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific -4
heats of solids and liquids

 The specific volume of

incompressible substances
remain constant during a
process.

 The Cv and Cp values of

incompressible substances
are identical and are
denoted by C.

Cp = C v = C 34
Internal energy of Solids and Liquids
du CV dT CdT
u CT C (T2  T1 )
Enthalpy of Solids
h u  Pv
dh du  Pdv  vdP But dv is 0 if the system
is incompressible
0
h u  vP CT  vP Small
for
h u Cavg T solids 35
Enthalpy of Liquids
h u  vP CT  vP
We have two cases:

Constant pressure process, P 0

h u Cavg T
, Constant temperature process
T 0
h vP
36