METHODS & TYPES OF

RESEARCH
DR.MRUDUL CHITRAKAR
M.D.PhD
ASSO.PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF SWASTHAVRITTA AND YOGA
 STEPS IN RESEARCH

• The task of research is a sequential process involving a

number of clearly delineated steps.
 According to Emory,
1. Exploration of the situation
2. Development of the research design
3. Data collection
4. Analysis & interpretation of the results
 STEPS IN RESEARCH

 According to Vimal Shah:

1. Identification & selection of the research problem
2. Choice of a theoretical framework for the research problem
3. Formulation of the research problem
4. Design of the experiment or enquiry
5. Definition & measurement of variables
 STEPS IN RESEARCH

6. Sampling procedures
7. Tools & techniques for gathering data
8. Coding, editing & processing of data
9. Analysis of the data
10. Reporting research
 STEPS IN RESEARCH
- GENERAL MODEL
1. Identification & selection of a research problem
2. Review of literature
3. Formulation of the selected problem
4. Operationalisation of concepts
5. Preparation of the research plan
6. Construction of tools of data collection
7. Collection of data
 STEPS IN RESEARCH
- GENERAL MODEL
8. Processing of data
9. Analysis of data
10. Report writing.
• The above steps or activities may be regrouped into the
following three stages:
1) Planning
2) Operation
3) Reporting
 STEPS IN RESEARCH

1) Planning:
 Selection of the problem
 Formulation of the selected problem
 Operationalisation of concepts
 Preparation of the research design
 Planning report-writing work
 STEPS IN RESEARCH

2) Operation:
 Construction of tools of data collection
 Pre-testing tools & their revision
 Collection of data
 Processing of data
 Analysis of data & interpretation of results
 STEPS IN RESEARCH

3) Reporting:
 Drafting the report
 Finalization of report
 Forwarding the report copies to the target
 1.PURE RESEARCH

• It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any

intention to apply it in practice.
• It is also known as basic or fundamental research.
• It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness.
• It is not necessarily problem – oriented.
• It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to either
discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory.
 PURE RESEARCH

• Pure research lays the foundation for the applied research.

• The findings of pure research formed the basis for
innumerable scientific & technological inventions like steam
engine, machines, automobiles, electronic data processing,
telecommunication, etc., which have revolutionized &
enriched our human life.
 2.APPLIED RESEARCH

• It is carried on to find out solution to a real life problem requiring an

action or policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented & action-
directed.
• It seeks an immediate & practical result, e.g., marketing research
carried on for developing a new market or for studying the post-
purchase experience of customers.
• It may incidentally contribute to the development of theoretical
knowledge by leading to the discovery of new facts or testing of a theory
or to conceptual clarity.
3.EXPLORATORY OR FORMULATIVE RESEARCH

• Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar

problem about which the researcher has little or no
knowledge.
• It is ill-structured & much less focused on pre-determined
objectives.
• It usually takes the form of a pilot study.
• Though it is separate type of research, it is appropriate to
consider it as the first stage of a three-stage process of
exploration, description & experimentation.
 EXPLORATORY OR FORMULATIVE RESEARCH

• The purpose of an exploratory study may be:

To generate new ideas or
To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem or
To make a precise formulation of the problem or
To gather information for clarifying concepts or
To determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study.
• An exploratory study does not aim at testing hypothesis. It should be
designed as to provide as definite information as possible for a set of
research objectives.
 4.DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

• It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation.

• It is the simplest type of research.
• It is more specific than an exploratory study, as it has focus on particular
aspects or dimensions of the problem studied.
• Data are collected by using one or more appropriate methods :
observation, interviewing & mail questionnaire.
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

• A descriptive study aims at identifying the various characteristics of a

community or institution or problem under study, but it does not deal
with the testing of proposition or hypothesis.
• Descriptive information obtained in a research may be useful for
prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the
research.
• Descriptive studies are valuable in providing facts needed for planning
social action programs.
 5.EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

• There are various phenomena such as motivation,

productivity, development & operational efficiency, which are
influenced by various variables. It may become necessary to
assess the effect of one particular variable or one set of
variables on a phenomenon. This need has rise to
Experimental Research.
• The nature of relationship between dependent & independent
variables is perceived & stated in the form of causal
hypothesis.
 6.ANALYTICAL STUDY OR STATISTICAL
METHOD
• Analytical study is a system of procedures & techniques of
analysis applied to quantitative data. It may consist of a
system of mathematical methods or statistical techniques
applicable to numerical data.
• This study aims at testing hypothesis & specifying &
interpreting relationships. It concentrates on analyzing data in
depth & examining relationships from various angles by
bringing in as many relevant variables as possible in the
analysis plan.
 7.HISTORICAL STUDY

• It is a study of past records & other information sources with a view to

reconstructing the origin & development of an institution or a movement or a system
& discovering the trends in the past.

• It is descriptive in nature.

• Its objective is to draw explanations & generalizations from the past trends in order
to understand the present & to anticipate the future.

• It enables us to grasp our relationship with the past & to plan more intelligently for
the future.
 8.SURVEYS

• Survey is a ‘fact finding’ study. It is a method of research involving

collection of data directly from a population or a sample thereof at
particular time.
• It requires expert & imaginative planning, careful analysis & rational
interpretation of the findings.
• Data may be collected by observation, interviewing & mail
questionnaire.
• The analysis of data may be made by using simple or complex statistical
techniques depending upon the objectives of the study.
 SURVEYS

• The Characteristics of Survey Method:

1. It is always conducted in a natural setting: it is a field study.
2. It seeks responses directly from the respondents.
3. It can cover a very large population, thanks to sampling techniques.
4. A survey may involve an extensive study or an intensive study.
5. A survey covers a definite geographical area.
 SURVEYS

• Advantages of Survey Research:

1. The major versatility of the survey method is its greatest strength. It is
the only practical way to collect many types of information from
individuals, such as personal characteristics, socio-economic data,
attitudes, opinions , experiences & expectations.
2. The survey method facilitates drawing generalizations about large
populations on the basis of studies of representative sample.
3. The survey method is flexible to permit the use of various methods of
collection of data.
 SURVEYS

• Advantages of Survey Research:

4. Surveys sensitize the researcher to unanticipated or unknown problems.
5. Surveys are useful instruments for verifying theories.
 9.CASE STUDY

• A case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social

group, an episode, a process, a situation or any other social unit.
• The case study method describes a case in terms of its peculiarities. It
gives us an insight into the typical or extreme cases whose unique
features are not reflected by the usual statistical method.
• A case study aims at studying everything about something rather than
something about everything as in the case of a statistical method.
 10.FIELD STUDIES

• Field studies are scientific enquiries aimed at discovering the relations &
interactions among sociological, psychological & educational variables
in social institutions & actual life situations like communities, schools,
factories, organizations & institutions.
• Types of Field Studies:
1. Anthropological studies
2. Quantitative field studies
 METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION IN
DISCRIPTIVE STUDIED
DR.MRUDUL CHITRAKAR
M.D.PhD
ASSO.PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF SWASTHAVRITTA AND YOGA
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

• The task of data collection begins after a research problem has

been defined & research design chalked out.

• While deciding about the method of data collection to be used

for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of
data viz. primary & secondary.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

• The primary data are those which are collected afresh & for the
first time, & thus happens to be original in character.

• The secondary data are those which have already been

collected by someone else & which have already been passed
through the statistical process.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

• The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would

be using for his study & accordingly he will have to select one or
the other method of data collection.

• The method of collecting primary & secondary data differ since

primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of
secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of
compilation.
 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
• We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments
in an experimental research.
• But in case we do research of the descriptive type & perform
surveys, whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we
can obtain primary data either through observation or through
direct communication with respondents in one form or another
or through personal interviews.
 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
• There are several methods of collecting primary data :
I. Observation method
II. Interview method
III. Through questionnaires
IV. Through schedules &
V. Other methods.
 OBSERVATION METHOD
• The observation method is the most commonly used method
specially in studies relating to behavioral sciences.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool & the method of data
collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated
research purpose, is systematically planned & recorded & is
subjected to checks & controls on validity & reliability.
• Under the observation method, the information is sought by way
of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the
respondents.
 OBSERVATION METHOD
• Merits :
1. The subjective bias is eliminated.
2. The information obtained under this method relates to what is
currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past
behavior or future intentions or attitudes.
3. This method is independent of respondent’s willingness to
respond.
4. This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with
subjects who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their
feelings.
 OBSERVATION METHOD
• De-Merits :
1. It is an expensive method.
2. The information provided by this method is very limited.
3. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task.
4. The fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct
observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data
effectively.
 OBSERVATION METHOD
• Types of Observation :
a. Structured observation : In case the observation is
characterized by a careful definition of the units to be
observed, the style of recording the observed information,
standardized conditions of observation & the selection of
pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called
Structured observation.
 OBSERVATION METHOD
b. Unstructured observation : But when the observation is to
take place without these characteristics to be thought of in
advance, the same is termed as unstructured observation.
In an exploratory study the observational procedure is most
likely to be relatively unstructured.
 OBSERVATION METHOD
• Types of Observation :
Participant & non-participant types of observation
Controlled & uncontrolled observation.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
• The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of
oral-verbal stimuli & reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
• This method can be used through personal interviews &, if
possible, through telephone interviews.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
A. Personal interviews : personal interview method requires a
person known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a
face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.
This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal
investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation.
In the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer has to
collect the information personally from the sources concerned.
This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
• But in certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to
contact directly the persons concerned or on account of the
extensive scope of enquiry, the indirect oral investigation can be
conducted in these cases under which the interviewer has to
cross-examine other persons who are supposed to have
knowledge about the problem under investigation & the
information, obtained is recorded.
• Most of the commissions & committees appointed by
government to carry on investigations make use of this method.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
Types of interviews :
• Structured & unstructured :
The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually
carried out in a structured way. As such we call the interviews as
structured interviews.
Such interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions & of
highly standardized techniques of recording. Thus, the interviewer in a
structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions
in a form & order prescribed.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
• The unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of approach
to questioning. Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of
predetermined questions & of highly standardized techniques of recording
information.
• Unstructured interview, however, happens to be the central technique of
collecting information in case of exploratory or formulative research
studies.
• But in case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the technique of
structured interview because of its being more economical, providing a
safe basis for generalization & requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of
the interviewer.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
• THE CHIEF MERITS OF THE INTERVIEW METHOD ARE AS
FOLLOWS:
1. More information & that too in greater depth can be obtained.
2. Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if
any, of the respondents; the interview method can be made
to yield an almost perfect sample of the greater population.
3. There is greater flexibility under this method as the
opportunity to restructure questions is always there,
especially in case of unstructured interviews.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
4. Observation method can as well be applied to recording
verbal answers to various questions.
5. Personal information can as well be obtained easily under
this method.
6. Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no
difficulty of the missing returns; non-response generally
remains very low.( No drop-outs)
 INTERVIEW METHOD
7. The interviewer can usually control which person will answer
the questions.
8. The language of the interview can be adapted to the ability or
educational level of the person interviewed & as such
misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
9. The interviewer can collect supplementary information about
the respondent’s personal characteristics & environment
which is often of great value in interpreting results.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
• THE DE-MERITS OF THE INTERVIEW METHOD ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1. It is a very expensive method, especially when large & widely
spread geographical sample is taken.
2. There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well
as that of the respondent; there also remains the headache
of supervision & control of interviewers.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
3. Certain types of respondents such as important officials or
people in high income group may not be easily approachable
under this method & to that extent the data may prove
inadequate.
4. This method is relatively more time consuming, especially
when the sample is large & recalls upon the respondents are
necessary.
5. The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-
stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the extent that
he may give imaginary information just to make the interview
interesting.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
6. Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors
(Biases).
7. Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with
respondents that would facilitate free & frank responses. This
is often a very difficult requirement.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
• PRE-REQUISITES & BASIC TENETS OF INTERVIEWING:
 For successful implementation of the interview method, interviewers should be
carefully selected, trained & briefed.
 They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, and impartial & must possess
the technical competence & necessary practical experience.
 Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that interviewers are
neither cheating, nor deviating from instructions given to them for performing
their job efficiently.
 In addition, some provision should also be made in advance so that
appropriate action may be taken if some of the selected respondents refuse to
co-operate or are not available when an interviewer calls upon them.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
In fact, interviewing is an art governed by certain scientific principles. Every
effort should be made to create friendly atmosphere of trust & confidence, so
that respondents may feel at ease while talking to & discussing with the
interviewer.
The interviewer must ask questions properly & intelligently & must record the
responses accurately & completely.
The interviewers approach must be friendly, courteous, conversational &
unbiased.
The interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of a respondent’s
answer but he must keep the direction of interview in his own hand,
discouraging irrelevant conversation & must take all possible effort to keep
the respondent on the track.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
B. TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS
• This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used
method, but plays important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
• The chief merits of such a system are:
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick method of
obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple & economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in
mailing method; the non-response is very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to
respondents.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. No field staff is required.
9. Representative & wider distribution of sample is possible.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
• The chief de-merits of such a system are:
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers;
interview period is not likely to exceed five minutes in most
cases.
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone
facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost
considerations.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive
answers are required to various questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short & to the point; probes are difficult
to handle.
 QUESTIONNAIRES
COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRES
• This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big
enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers,
private & public organizations & even by governments.
• In this method a questionnaire is sent to the persons concerned with a
request to answer the questions & return the questionnaire.
• A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a
definite order on a form or a set of forms.
 QUESTIONNAIRES
• The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected
to read & understand the questions & write down the reply in
the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The
respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
• The method of collecting information by mailing the
questionnaire to respondents is most extensively employed in
various economic & business surveys.
 QUESTIONNAIRES
• The merits
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large & is widely
spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in
respondent’s own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out
answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be
reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of & thus the results can be
made more dependable & reliable.
 QUESTIONNAIRES
• The main De-merits
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due
to no-response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated & co-
operating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of
amending the approach once questionnaires have been
dispatched.
 QUESTIONNAIRES
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies
altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omission is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
Before using this method, it is advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (pilot
survey) for testing the questionnaires. Pilot survey is in fact the replica
& rehearsal of the main survey. Such a survey, being conducted by
experts, brings to the light the weaknesses of the questionnaires & also
of the survey techniques.
 QUESTIONNAIRES
• Main Aspects of a Questionnaire:
Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of the
survey operation. Hence it should be very carefully constructed.
If it is not properly set up, then the survey is bound to fail.
This fact requires us to study the main aspects of a
questionnaire viz., the general form, question sequences &
question formulation & wording.
 QUESTIONNAIRES
• Essentials of a good Questionnaire:
To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short
& simple i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the
minimum. Questions should proceed in logical sequence
moving from easy to more difficult questions. Personal &
intimate questions should be left to the end. Technical terms &
vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be
avoided in a questionnaire.
 QUESTIONNAIRES
• Questions may be dichotomous yes or no answers), multiple choice (alt
answers listed) or open-ended.
• There should be some control questions in the questionnaire which
indicate the reliability of the respondent.
• Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should be avoided.
• Adequate space for answers should be provided in the questionnaire to
help editing & tabulation.
• There should always be provision for indications of uncertainty, e.g., ‘do
not know’, ‘no preference’ & so on.
 QUESTIONNAIRES
• Brief directions with regards to filling up the questionnaire
affects the co-operation the researcher receives from the
recipients & as such an attractive looking questionnaire is a plus
point for enlisting co-operation.
• The quality of the paper, along with its color, must be good so
that it may attract the attention of recipients.
 COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH
SCHEDULES
• This method of data collection is very much like the collection of
data through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the
fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are
being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed
for the purpose.
• These enumerators along with schedules go to respondents,
put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the
questions are listed & record the replies in the space meant for
the same in the proforma.
 COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH
SCHEDULES
• This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules
& as such enumerators should be very carefully selected.
• The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well & the nature &
scope of the investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that
they may well understand the implications of different questions put in the
schedule.
• Enumerators should be intelligent & must possess the capacity of cross-
examination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest,
sincere, and hardworking & should have patience & perseverance.
 COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH
SCHEDULES
• This method of data collection is very useful in extensive
enquiries & can lead to fairly reliable results.
• It is, however, very expensive & is usually adopted in
investigations conducted by governmental agencies or by some
big organizations.
• Population census all over the world is conducted through this
method.
 SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION
• Warranty cards
• Distributor or store audits
• Use of mechanical devices etc.
 COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
• Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they
refer to the data which have already been collected & analyzed
by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary data,
then he has to look into various sources from where he can
obtain them.
• Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished
data.
 COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
• Usually published data are available in:
• Various publications of the central, state & local governments;
• Various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies &
their subsidiary organizations;
• Technical & trade journals;
• Books, magazines & newspapers;
• Reports prepared by research scholars, universities in different fields;
• Public records & statistics, historical documents, & other sources of
published information.
 COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
• The sources of unpublished data are many: they may be found
in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies & autobiographies &
also may be available with scholars & research workers etc.
 COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
• By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data,
must see that they possess following characteristics:
• Reliability of data: the reliability can be tested by finding out
such things about the said data:
• Who collected the data?
• What were the sources of data?
• Were they collected by using proper methods?
• At what time were they collected?
• Was there any bias of the compiler?
• What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?
 COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
• Suitability of data: the data that are suitable for one enquiry
may not necessarily be found suitable in another enquiry. The
researcher must carefully scrutinize the definition of various
terms & units of collection used at the time of collecting the
data from the primary source originally. Similarly, the object,
scope & nature of the original enquiry must also be studied.
 COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
• Adequacy of data: if the level of accuracy achieved in data
is found inadequate for the purpose of the present enquiry,
they will be considered inadequate & should not be used by
the researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate,
if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or
wider than the area of the present enquiry.
SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR DATA
COLLECTION
Nature, scope & object of enquiry:
Availability of funds
Time factor
Precision required
Thus, the most desirable approach with regard to the selection
of the method depends on the nature of the particular problem
& on the time & resources (money & personnel) available along
with the desired degree of accuracy.
“in collection of statistical data common sense is the chief
requisite & experience the chief teacher.”
 CASE STUDY METHOD
• The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative
analysis & involves a careful & complete observation of a social
unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural
group or even the entire community.
• It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case
study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited
number of events or conditions & their interrelations.
• The case study deals with the processes that take place & their
interrelationship.
 CASE STUDY METHOD
• Thus, case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the
particular unit under consideration. The object of the case study
method is to locate the factors that account for the behavior-
patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality.
• The case study method is a technique by which individual factor
whether it be an institution or just an episode in the life of an
individual or a group is analyzed in its relationship to any other
in the group.
• The social microscope
• A comprehensive study of a social unit.