Hydrology

Unit 7:
Introduction to hydrograph analysis
 Introduction
• Hydrograph: is a continuous plot of instantaneous
discharge against time measured at a hydrological
gauging station.
• Natural flood hydrograph: Both runoff and base flow
are included.
• Direct runoff hydrograph: Only representative of the
runoff component, all the base flow is excluded. The
-Index is already determined if the runoff or effective
/ net precipitation is known.
 Introduction

• Base flow is referred to as the minimum amount of

water flowing in a river, is due to groundwater
seepage to maintain the ecology, especially during
periods of drought.
• After periods of precipitation, overland flow and base
flow would contribute to the runoff in a river and the
hydrograph of the river will change in shape with
higher peak values.
Introduction – hydrograph
shapes
Introduction – hydrograph
response
 Steps – Rainfall to Runoff

• Basic steps from rainfall to runoff

 Components of Natural Hydrograph

Peak flow

Rising limb Inflection point

Q (m3/s)

Recession limb
Total
Runoff
Groundwater
depletion curve
extrapolated
Base flow
Time (hour/day)
 Components of Natural Hydrograph

• Peak flow: After initial losses (interception &

infiltration) are met the rising limb of the hydrograph
reaches a maximum or peak value after the period t p,
which is measured from the centre of gravity of the
precipitation hyetograph to the peak value of the
hydrograph.
• Depletion curve: The groundwater that contributes
more to the end of the storm flow than at the
beginning and declines to the curve of depletion, due
to the recharge of the groundwater table by means of
infiltration and percolation.
 Components of Natural Hydrograph

• Recession limb/curve: Declination of runoff until it

eventually disappears.
• Channel precipitation and interflow are the two other
components of runoff.
• Channel precipitation: Portion of the total catchment
precipitation that falls directly on the stream, river and lake
surfaces.
• Interflow: Water travelling horizontally through the upper
horizons of soil, artificial tile drain systems and above
impermeable layers immediately below the surface.
 Base Flow and Stream Discharge

• Influent streams: The base flow is negative, thus

the stream is feeding the groundwater instead of
receiving from it.
• Effluent streams: The base flow is positive, thus the
stream is fed by the groundwater and acts as a
drain for bordering aquifers.
 Base Flow and Stream Discharge

• Ephemeral streams: An ephemeral water body is a

wetland, spring, stream, river, pond or lake that only
exists for a short period followed by precipitation
• Less than 20% flow – respond only to precipitation
 Base Flow and Stream Discharge

• Intermittent streams: Act both as influent- and effluent

streams according to the season, tending to dry up in
the dry season.
• Well defined water channels
• 20% - 90% flow of the year
 Base Flow and Stream Discharge

• Perennial streams: Dry season low flow fed by base

flow, mainly effluent streams.
• Usually rocky bed – frequent flow
• 90% flow of the year

• Bank storage: Portion of runoff in a rising flood that is

absorbed by the permeable boundaries of a
watercourse above the normal phreatic zone.
 Hydrograph Separation
Master depletion curve
• To separate hydrograph into base flow and runoff;
• Detailed knowledge of the geo-hydrology of the catchment,
areal extent and transmissibility of aquifers are required.

Discharge hydrograph
Q
(m3/s) Surface Possible separation line
runoff
Extrapolated
depletion curve

Base flow

Time (hours/ days)

 Base Flow and Stream Discharge
Master depletion curve

• If a continuous record of discharges is available:

• Recession curves (a-b, c-d, e-f & g-h) of the
hydrograph are examined firstly.
• The recession limbs are then plotted on a log Q (y-
axis) vs linear time scale (x-axis).
• A curve is now constructed that is tangential to the
lower points of the curves.
• Each log Q plot in successive increasing magnitude
fits into a growing depletion curve extended upwards
to the highest stage possible.
 Base Flow and Stream Discharge
Master depletion curve
• This curve is then converted to a linear plot.
• This depletion curve can then be applied to a
hydrograph of a specific storm duration whereby the
depletion curve is fitted to the recession limb of the
hydrograph;
• Point of greatest curvature (Equation):
• The point of greatest curvature is established on the
recession limb of the hydrograph.
• The ratio between Q at any time and at any
convenient interval is plotted against time
• Point of change in slope = start of depletion
 A (a): Hydrograph with recession limbs selected
C E
Q G
B H
a D F
Time
A (b): Log plot of recession
Log C curves E
Q F G
H
b B D
Linear Time

(c): Linear plot of master depletion curve

Q

c
Time
Master depletion curve Read examples 7.1 – 7.3
 Base Flow and Stream Discharge

• Base flow: The groundwater contribution from

aquifers bordering the rivers. The hydrograph of base
flow is near to an exponential curve and the quantity
represented at any time is as follows:
Qt Qo e  kt
Where:
Qt = Discharge at end of time t.
Qo = Discharge at start period.
k = Storage coefficient of aquifer.
e = Base of natural logarithms.
t = Time (days)
 EXAMPLE

• A catchment is undergoing a prolonged rainless period. The

discharge of the stream is 100 m3/s after 10 days without rain and
50 m3/s after 40 days without rain. Derive the equation of the
depletion curve and estimate the discharge after 120 days without
rain.
• SOLUTION: Use the exponential equation representing hydrograph
of base flow to solve the problem:
Qt Qo e  kt
 ln Qt ln Qo  kt

• Using the first rainfall event, we have:

ln 100 ln Qo  k 10
 ln Qo ln 100  10k
 ln Qo 4.605  10k (1)

• Similarly, for the second rainfall event we have:

ln 50 ln Qo  40k
 3.91 ln Qo  40k (2)
 EXAMPLE (cont…)

• Substituting equation 1 into equation 2, we have

3.91 4.605  10k  40k
4.605  3.91
 k 0.023
30

• And, using equation 1 we have:

ln Qo 4.605  10 0.023
 Qo 125.84 m 3 s

• Therefore, the base flow hydrograph is represented by the following

equation:
Qt 126e  0.023t

• Discharge of the stream after 120 days without rain is:

Q120 126e  0.023120
7.97 m 3 s
 Unit Hydrographs

• Unit hydrograph: Hydrograph of 1mm runoff due to

uniform precipitation in terms of areal and time
extent, with duration equal to unity.
• The duration of the hydrograph is related to the storm
duration and the volume is related to the precipitation
intensity.
• A unit hydrograph can be derived from a total stream
flow hydrograph at a gauging station with:
• The basin area
• The basin–averaged rainfall depth
• The time over which the excess precipitation occurred
 Unit Hydrographs

Underneath are the basic steps for deriving a unit

hydrograph (UH):
Step 1: Select Appropriate Precipitation Event (from a
single storm event)
Step 2: Remove Base flow Contribution
Step 3: Calculate Total Runoff Volume
Step 4: Determine Excess Precipitation Depth from the
Basin (volume evenly distributed over the total catchment
area)
Step 5: Adjust the hydrograph to represent 1mm of basin
averaged depth.
Step 6: Calculate the duration of excess precipitation.
 Unit Hydrographs

• Basic assumptions that are essential in UH model:

1. The excess rainfall has a constant intensity within the
effective duration.
• Short duration  an intense and nearly constant excess
rainfall rate  a well-defined single-peaked hydrograph of
short time base.
2. The excess rainfall is uniformly distributed throughout
the whole drainage area.
• When the drainage area is too large to be covered by a
nearly uniform distribution of rainfall, the area has to be
divided and each subarea analyzed for storms covering the
whole subarea.
 Unit Hydrographs

3. The base time of the DRH (the duration of direct

runoff) resulting from an excess rainfall of given
duration is constant.
• Will depend on the method of base flow separation,
• Usually short if the direct runoff is considered to include the
surface runoff only; it is long if the direct runoff also includes
subsurface runoff
 Unit Hydrographs

4. The ordinates of the DRH’s of a common base time

are directly proportional to rainfall excess volumes
represented by each hydrograph.
• The principles of superposition and proportionality are
assumed so that the ordinates, Qn, of the DRH may be
computed.
5. For a given watershed, the hydrograph resulting from
a given excess rainfall reflects the unchanging
characteristics of the watershed.
• The unit hydrograph is considered unique for a given
watershed and invariable with respect to time (the principle
of time invariance),
 Unit Hydrographs
• Unit hydrographs are applicable only when channel
conditions remain unchanged and watersheds do not have
substantial storage.
 END
Session 1
(Introduction to Hydrograph Analysis)