Introduction to

GIS
What is GIS
• A GIS is a computer-based system
to aid in the collection,
Data
maintenance, storage, analysis,
Collection
output, and distribution of spatial
data and information.
Presenta Managem
tion ent
• Data vs Information
Spatial
Analysis
GIS History
• 1960s: John Snow, Minard’s Map (Napoleon)
• First GIS – Roger Tomlinson 1960, operational from 1971
• USA – Government Organisations: USGS, US Forest Services,
others incl. CIA
• Academia
• Edinburgh – GIMMS 1970s (Sold from 1973), MSc GIS 1985
• Harvard – Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis Lab 1965
• ESRI 1969 Env. Consultancy – Arc/Info 1982 - ArcView Desktop
1995 - ArcGIS 1999
• Demographics Consultancy – MapInfo 1986
• OpenSource – GRASS, Quantum GIS (QGIS), gvSIG, …
• Web GIS – WMS, WFS, Google Maps, Google Earth, OGC,
OpenStreetMap
Components of GIS
People

Methods

Data

Software
Hardwar
e
Data Models
Vector Data
Point Polyline Polygon
• Discrete • Set of atleast • Closed
locations in two ordered, figures that
0-dimension connected encompass a
with a single coordinates homogenous
x,y in area in 2
coordinate 1-dimension. dimensions.
pair and zero • Eg – roads, It should
area. water have three or
• Eg. – tree, oil pipelines more ordered
well, label and
 Attributes Table Coordinates Table
Point ID model year Point ID x y
1 a 90 1 1 3
2 b 90 2 2 1
3 b 80 3 4 1
4 a 70 4 1 2
5 c 70 5 3 2

e is a geometry/shape definition file/table for each features.

 FeatureID / OID*
Geometry*
Junction/Node Segment Length*
Segment Vertex Junction/Node
Vertex
Feature Segment Feature Name
State
StartPlace
EndPlace
Edge Element *Default fields

Junction/Node SegmentJunction/Node
Segment SegmentVertex
Feature Feature
Vertex

Edge Element Edge Element

Raster Data
• Raster data is generally represented in a grid
format and the cells are generally called pixels.
• Attributes are recorded by assigning each cell a
single value
• easy to do overlays/analyses, just by
‘combining’ corresponding cell values: “yield=
rainfall + fertilizer”
• simple data structure: directly store each layer
as a single table
Attributes
• Vector – Multiple Attributes (Properties)
• Attributes are of each feature (point, line, poly)

• Raster – Single Attribute (Value) e.g. pH

• Each cell has a different value of this attribute

• BUT! Can also have in turn Value Attributes e.g.

1 = Acid, 7 = Neutral, 14 = Alkaline

• BUT! Again only one per value!

Shape of the Earth
• Geoid is the shape that the surface of
the oceans would take under the
influence
Sea surface
of Earth's gravity and
rotation Ellipsoid

Terrain
Geoid
Earth
Surface
Ellipsoid

Geoid
Datum
• In geodesy, a datum is a set of reference
points on the earth's surface and an associated
model of the shape of the earth (reference
ellipsoid) to define a Coordinate System
• Horizontal datum: are used for describing a
point on the earth's surface,
in latitude and longitude or another coordinate
system
• Vertical datum: measure elevations or depths
Map Projections & Coordinate Systems
Coordinate
Map Projection
System
• Map projections in • Coordinate
surveying are systems are sets
methods used to of mathematical
transform the rules used to
spherical surface locate positions on
of the earth into a the earth's
two-dimensional surface.
plane. • A coordinate
…
Spatial Data can be measured/located in:
• Angular Units – Latitude, Longitude, e.g. 56º23'4‘’ (DMS) / 56.38º
(DD)
• Linear Units – Flat Grid-based: Easting, Northing, e.g. 100025
metres / feet

Coordinates:
• Spherical (Angular)/Geographic Coordinate = 'Geographic' CRS e.g.
Polyconic
• Cartesian (Linear)/Projected Coordinate = 'Projected' CRS e.g. UTM

• All CRS are based on a reference datum – a model of the Earth’s

surface/shape. This MUST be correctly defined, for any later
projection (curved to flat) to work correctly.
 Geographic Coordinate Projected Coordinate
Globe
System System
Attributes & Field Data
Types • Data Type Examples
Integer
• Float
Shapefil • Double
Short -32,768 to 32,767
e • Integer (16
String
• Date
Bits)
Integer (32 4,29,49,67,296
• Integer Bits)
Geodata • Float Long 1,84,46,74,40,73,70,9
base / • Double Integer (64 5,51,616
• String Bits)
File • Date Float (32 3.4E+/-38
Geodata • Blob Bits)
• GUID
base • Raster
Double (64 1.7E+/-308
Bits)
String "A", "GIS World"
Date 09.08.2024 14:15:00
Spatial Database
Database
• A database is an organized collection of structured
information, or data, typically stored electronically in a
computer system.
• A database is usually controlled by a Database Management
System (DBMS).
• Data within the most common types of databases in operation
today is typically modeled in rows and columns in a series of
tables to make processing and data querying efficient.
• The data can then be easily accessed, managed, modified,
updated, and organized.
• Most databases use Structured Query Language (SQL) to
perform this.
• History of SQL in short

Cloud Database
2000s-NoSQL Database
1990s-Object-oriented Database
1980s-Relational Database

1960s- Plain Database

• SQL is a programming language used by
nearly all relational databases to
• define, query, manipulate, and to provide access
control to data
• SQL was first developed at IBM in the
1970s with Oracle as a major contributor
• SQL has spurred many extensions from
companies such as IBM, Oracle, and
Microsoft.
Database vs File System
• Sharing of data Database System:
Oracle, SQL Server,
• Data Abstraction Sybase etc
• Security and Protection
• Recovery Mechanism File System:
• FAT (File Allocation
Manipulation
Table)
Techniques NTFS (New
• Concurrency Problems Technology File
• Data Redundancy and System)
APFS (Apple File
Inconsistency System)
• Integrity Constraints
Spatial Data
Infrastructure:
Concepts and Components
What is a Spatial Data
Infrastructure (SDI)?
• “The SDI is a basis for spatial data
discovery, evaluation, and
application for users and providers
within all levels of government,
commercial sector, non-profit sector,
academia and by citizens in
general” – GSDI Cookbook v2
Components of SDI
Technol
ogy

People SDI Policies

Data
Consortiums
• Besides these software components, a range of
(international) technical standards are necessary
that allow interaction between the different
software components.
• Among those are geospatial standards defined by
the Open Geospatial Consortium (e.g., OGC WMS,
WFS, GML, etc.) and International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) for the delivery of maps,
vector and raster data, but also data format and
internet transfer standards by W3C consortium.
Why SDI?
• Build data once and use it many times
• for many applications
• for many users
• Integrate distributed providers of data
• Share costs of data creation and
maintenance
• Support sustainable economic, social,
and environmental development
If SDI were developed…
• Improved decision
• Providing decision makers what they really need:
indicators, models, trends, patterns

• Business opportunities
• Development of a private sector involved with data
sales and added value

• Increased globalization
• A chance for developing countries to participate in the
knowledge economy
Data Capturing Methods
• Data are vital
• Data sources:
Primary Secondary Tertiary
• Positioning, • Satellite • References /
GPR Images Bibliograph
Surveys • Maps s
• Satellite • Government • Encyclopaed
Images s Reports ia
• Classical - Census • Dictionaries
Surveys
• Methods of data capturing
• Collect / Generate
• Off-the-Shelf (OTS)
• Digitize
• Import
• Spatial data
• Attribute data
Spatial Data Editing
• What is the nature of spatial
data?
• Create/Edit spatial data may often
produce errors
• Raster Data Editing
• Spatial Data Editing
 Raster Data Editing
Hole Deletion

Smoothening Thinning

De-skewing Clipping

Speckle
Vector Data Editing
• Modification
• Generalization
• Smoothening – Arc, Bezier
curves
• Densification / De-
densification
• Edge Matching
• Merge / Split
Vector Data Editing
• Geometric/Spatial Tolerance (x, y,
z)
Cluster tolerances is used to
integrate vertices:
• An x, y tolerance to find vertices
within the horizontal distance of
one another.
• A z-tolerance to distinguish
Tolerance: 0.2 Tolerance: 0.3
Types of Errors and Types of
Accuracies
• Spatial / Geometrical / Positional
Error / Accuracy
• Occurs at the time of capturing /
digitizing spatial data Basemap
Digitized map

• Topological Error / Accuracy

• Occurs at the time of capturing /
…
• Topological errors

Overlap Overshoot Overlap

t
Poin

Polygo
n
Line
Misplacement Undershoot Sliver
… Gap
Overlap
…
Intersect
Misplacement
…
 Must not Must Not Overlap
overlap
Must not have Must Not Intersect
gaps Must Not Have Must Be Covered
Polygon Rules

Dangles

Polygon Rules
Must not Must Not Have By Boundary Of
overlap with Pseudonodes Must Be Properly
Must Be Must Not Intersect Or Inside Polygons
Covered By

Rules
Touch Interior Must Be Covered

Point
Feature Class Of Must Not Overlap By Endpoint Of
Must Cover With
Must Be Covered
Each Other Must Be Covered By
Feature Class Of By Line
Must Be Must Be Covered By
Covered By Boundary Of Must Coincide with
Boundary Must Endpoint Must Be
Be Covered
Area By
Boundary Covered By Must be disjoint
Must Be Must Not Self Overlap
Covered By Must Not Self
Boundary Of Intersect
Contains Point Must Be Single Part
C:\Program Files (x86)\ArcGIS\Desktop10.X\Documentation
Data Representation
Tessellation
• The division of a two-
dimensional area into
polygonal tiles, or a three-
dimensional area into
polyhedral blocks, in such a
way that no figures overlap
and there are no gaps.
• There are
regular and
irregular tessellations
• In a regular tessellation, the cells have
the same shape and size;
• a simple example of this is a
rectangular raster of unit squares,
represented in a computer.
• Irregular Tessellation are partitions of
space into mutually distinct cells, but
now the cells may vary in size and
shape, allowing them to adapt to the
spatial phenomena that they represent.
TIN
• Triangular Irregular Networks
(TIN) are a digital means to
represent surface morphology.
• TINs are a form of vector-based
digital geographic data and are
constructed by triangulating a
set of vertices (points).
• The vertices are connected
with a series of edges to form
a network of triangles. There
are different methods of
interpolation to form these
triangles
Spatial / Topological Relationships
• A spatial relationship determines the topological
association between two geometries.
• For example, you can determine if two
geometries
• Contain
• Disjoint
• Intersect
• Overlap
• Touch or
• Within one another.
https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/extensions/data-reviewer/types-of-spatial-relationships-that-can-be-validated.htm
Contains yellow = true
Returns true if one geometry
contains another geometry.
Disjoint
Returns true if one geometry
does not intersect another
geometry.
Intersects
Returns true if one geometry
intersects another geometry.
Overlaps
Returns true if one geometry
overlaps another geometry.
NOTE: Only valid for geometries
of the same type or dimension.
Touches
Returns true if one geometry
touches another geometry.
Within
Returns true if one geometry is
fully within another geometry.
Relation
When you choose Relation as the
spatial relationship type, you can
compare any possible spatial
intersections between two shapes
based on the following three aspects:
Interior - The entire shape, except
for its boundary. All geometry types
have interiors.
Boundary - The endpoints of all
linear parts for line features, or the
linear outline of a polygon. Only
lines and polygons have boundaries.
Exterior - The outside area of a
shape. All geometry types have
https://developers.arcgis.com/documentation/spatial-analysis-services/geometry-analysis/calculation/
Introduction: Nature of GIS – Spatial Data Models - Geodesy,
Datums, Map Projections and Coordinate Systems - Data types:
Point, Line, Polygon - Attribute data.
Data Management: GIS database - Database Management
Systems - Spatial Data Infrastructure - Data Capturing
Techniques – Spatial Data Editing and Updating – Spatial Data
Quality and Assurance.
Data Representation: Tessellations and Vector Approaches -
Topology and Spatial Relationships - Temporal Data - Scale and
Resolution - Representations of Geographic Fields and Objects.
Spatial Data Analysis: Retrieval, Classification, and
Measurement – Overlay Functions - Neighborhood Functions -
Network Analysis – Surface/Terrain Analysis - Spatial
Autocorrelation – Spatial Data Models - Spatial Data Mining.
Data Visualization and Recent Trends: GIS and Maps -