Mobile Communication

Engineering

Module-3
 WIRELESS NETWORK GENERATIONS
• Explain different kinds of wireless cellular network?
• First-Generation Analog Cellular Systems
• The first-generation cellular systems are based on analog
transmission technology.
• The most popular first generation cellular systems are
AMPS
• The systems transmit speech signals employing FM, and
important control information is transmitted in digital form
using FSK.
• The entire service area is divided into logical cells, and each
cell is allocated one specific band in the frequency spectrum.
• explore a frequency reuse pattern, the frequency spectrum is
divided among seven cells, improving the voice quality as
 Cont…,
• AMPS and ETACS cellular radio systems deploy cell-sites with tall
towers that support several receiving antennas and have transmitting
antennas that typically radiate a few hundred watts of effective radiated
power.
• Each cell-site has one control channel transmitter that broadcasts on the
forward control channel,
• one control channel receiver that listens on the reverse control channel
for any mobile phone to set-up a call, and eight or more FM duplex
voice channels
 AMPS
• Forward frequency band:824–849
• Reverse frequency band:869–894
• Channel spacing (kHz) 30
• Number of channels:832
• Multiple access/ Modulation technique:FDMA/FM
 Second-Generation Digital Cellular Systems
• The second generation (2G) cellular systems
represent the set of wireless air interface standards
that rely on digital modulation and sophisticated
digital signal processing in the handset and the base
station
• Efficient use of the frequency spectrum, time
division or code-division multiple access technique
is used in 2G digital cellular systems so that low-
rate data along with voice can be processed
• The most popular 2G cellular standards include
three TDMA standards and one CDMA standard
 Cont…,
• Phone conversations are digitally encrypted,
• 2G systems are significantly more efficient on the spectrum
allowing for far greater mobile phone penetration levels
• 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS
text messages.
• Global System for Mobile (GSM), which supports eight time
slotted mobile subscribers for each 200-kHz radio channel in
both the cellular and PCS bands; and Pacific Digital Cellular
(PDC)
• The popular 2G CDMA standard (IS-95), also known as
cdmaOne, can support up to 64 mobile subscribers that are
orthogonally coded and simultaneously transmitted on each
1.25 MHz channel.
 Cont…,
• The speech-coding technique of all 2G systems
operates at about 10 kbps.
• It is assumed that large cell sizes and a large
number of subscribers per cell are available, which
necessitates lower speech-coding rates
• A frame length of around 5 to 40 ms is typically
used in 2G cellular networks
 Evolution from 2G to 3G Cellular Networks
• DESCRIBE GSM AND CDMA MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES
• An evolution path from second generation digital
cellular GSM network to third generation network is
depicted in Fig
 Cont..,
• GSM is an open, digital cellular technology which
supports voice calls and data transfer speeds of up to
9.6 kbps, together with the transmission of SMS
(Short Message Service).
• GSM operates in the 900 MHz and 1.8 GHz bands
in Europe and the 850 MHz and 1.9 GHz bands in
the US.
• GSM provides international roaming capability
• GPRS is a very widely deployed wireless data
service, available now with most GSM networks.
GPRS offers throughput rates of up to 53.6 kbps,
 CONT…,
• GSM networks are provided by Enhanced Data rates for GSM
Evolution (EDGE) technology or EGPRS
• WCDMA is the air interface for third-generation mobile
communications systems. It enables the continued support of voice,
text and MMS services in addition to richer mobile multimedia
services
• An evolution path from second generation digital cellular CDMA
networks to third generation networks is depicted in Fig
 Cont..,
• The initial evolution of CDMA started in 1991 as IS-
95A cdmaOne 2G digital cellular technology for voice
communication as well as data and multimedia
services
• IS-95A describes the structure of the wideband 1.25
MHz CDMA channels, power control, call processing,
hand-offs, and registration techniques for system
operation.
• In addition to voice services provide circuit-switched
data connections at 14.4 kbps
• The IS-95B or cdmaOne, categorised as a 2.5G
technology offers up to 144 kbps packet-switched data,
 CONT…,
• CDMA2000 Multi-Carrier (MC) delivers improved
system capacity and spectrum efficiency over 2G
systems and it supports data services at minimum
transmission rates of 144 kbps in mobile (outdoor)
and 2 Mbps in fixed (indoor) environments
The key features of the IMT-2000 system defining the
ITU’s view of 3G cellular network capabilities

 High degree of worldwide commonality of design

 Compatibility of services with fixed networks and within IMT-
2000
 More efficient use of the available spectrum
 Voice quality comparable to that of PSTN
 144–kbps data rate available to users in high-speed vehicles over
large areas
 384 kbps available to pedestrians standing or moving slowly over
small areas
 Support for 2-Mbps data rate for office use
 Symmetrical and asymmetrical data-transmission rates
 Support for both circuit-switched and packet-switched data
 Cont…,
 Support for wide variety of mobile phones for
worldwide use including pico, micro, macro, and
global cellular/satellite cells
 Worldwide roaming capability
 Capability for multimedia applications and a wide
range of services
 Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services
and technologies
 Key features of 3rd generation
• Global Standardization: 3G systems aim to
integrate various network technologies into a unified
global standard.
• This ensures that mobile communication across
different regions and operators can be harmonized.
• Compatibility of Services with Fixed Networks
and Within IMT-2000, Convergence of Services:
3G systems are designed to work with both fixed-line
networks (such as the PSTN) and mobile networks.
• This allows users to access the same services (e.g.,
voice, data, and multimedia) whether they are on a
mobile or a fixed network
 Cont…,
• The spectrum can be dynamically allocated based
on traffic demands, making better use of the
available bandwidth for voice, data, and multimedia
services.
• Data Speeds: 3G offers significantly higher data
rates compared to earlier generations:
• Up to 144 kbps for users in high-speed vehicles.
• Up to 384 kbps for users who are stationary or
moving slowly.
• Up to 2 Mbps for indoor or fixed wireless users.
• Support for Both Circuit-Switched and Packet-
 Cont…,
• 3G systems enable the transmission of multimedia
content, such as images, video clips, and audio files.
This includes Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS),
• Users can stream high-definition video and CD-
quality audio on demand, enhancing the mobile
entertainment experience.
• Interactive high multimedia This can be used for
high-quality videophones, videoconferencing or a
combination of videoconferencing and collaborative
working.
• 3G systems provide seamless roaming across
different countries and regions.
 Cont…,
• 3G is designed to support a broad range of mobile devices, from small
mobile phones to laptops and other mobile computing devices
• 3G incorporates stronger encryption techniques compared to earlier
generations, ensuring that voice calls, messaging, and data transfers
are secure.
• 3G systems are designed with flexibility in mind, allowing for the
introduction of new services and technologies without requiring a
complete overhaul of the infrastructure.
• Technology Evolution: (such as 4G and 5G) without disrupting
existing services.
comparison between the key aspects of 1G, 2G, and 3G cellular systems.
 BASIC PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
• Three basic radio propagation mechanisms, namely,
reflection, diffraction, and scattering
 Cont…,
• Reflection occurs when electromagnetic waves hit objects with different electrical
properties, such as buildings and walls.
• Large objects, compared to the wave's wavelength, cause reflections (e.g., tall
buildings, metal surfaces).
• The extent of reflection depends on factors like object composition, surface
characteristics, wave frequency, and the Fresnel reflection coefficient.
• Higher frequency waves reflect more than lower frequencies.
• Reflection can cause signal attenuation due to the 180º phase shift, leading to
interference between the direct and reflected waves.
• Multipath propagation results in fluctuating signal strength due to the vector sum
of multiple signals.
• Reflections are often negligible in outdoor urban areas due to multiple reflections
but dominate in indoor environments.
• Reflection leads to large-scale fading of radio signals, causing low signal strength
and poor reception.
Cont…,
Cont…,
 BASIC PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
• Diffraction
• Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles,
occurring when the radio path is blocked by surfaces with
sharp edges.
• Based on Huygen’s Principle, diffraction occurs when
secondary wavelets are produced, forming a new wavefront.
• Diffraction enables signals to propagate even when there is
no direct line-of-sight between the transmitter and receiver.
• It results in regions of signal strengthening and
weakening and is measured in decibels (dB).
• Diffraction is prominent in outdoor environments, such as
micro-cellular areas, where high-rise buildings block
signals.
 Cont…,
• In indoor settings, diffraction is less significant
• Diffraction leads to signal loss greater than
reflection and causes small-scale fading in
shadowed areas.
• Diffraction loss occurs when part of the signal
energy is blocked by obstacles, reducing the signal's
strength.
• Multiple obstructions in the propagation path can
further exacerbate diffraction loss.
Cont…,
 BASIC PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
• Scattering
• Scattering occurs when radio waves hit irregular objects
(e.g., rough surfaces, vehicles, foliage) smaller than or
comparable to the wavelength.
• Scattering results in multiple weaker reflected signals in
all directions, reducing the signal strength, especially far
from the scatterer.
• It provides additional signal energy at the receiver beyond
what reflection and diffraction alone predict.
• Scattering is significant in noisy environments (e.g., heavy
foliage) and contributes to small-scale fading.
• If there’s line-of-sight, reflection has the most impact, while
diffraction and scattering have minor effects.
 Cont…,
• In non-line-of-sight situations (e.g., urban areas),
diffraction and scattering dominate signal reception.
• Multipath propagation can cause signals to arrive out
of phase, leading to destructive interference and signal
attenuation.
• It also causes intersymbol interference in digital
transmission, increasing data errors.
• Shadowing occurs when large obstacles (e.g., walls,
trees) block radio signals, causing extreme attenuation.
• Refraction bends signals toward denser mediums,
such as the earth’s surface, affecting line-of-sight
propagation
Cont…,
 Mobile radio channels
• Mobile radio channels introduce noise, fading, interference,
and other distortions into the signals that they transmit
• In a mobile communication system, a signal experiences
multipath propagation which causes rapid signal level
fluctuations in time, called fading
1.large-scale fading and 2.small-signal fading

• If there is a large number of multiple reflective paths with no

line-of-sight signal path, it is Rayleigh fading
• When there is a dominant non-fading signal component
present, the small-signal fading envelope is described by a
Rician fading.
• Small-signal fading results into signal dispersion and time-
variant behaviour of the channel.
 Cont…,
• Both fading types involve multipath scattering,
time dispersion, and Doppler shifts (caused by the
relative motion between transmitter and receiver).
• Signals arrive at the receiver from multiple paths,
with local scattering adding to the complexity.
• Rayleigh distribution models fading without line-
of-sight, while Rician distribution models fading
with a line-of-sight component.
• Doppler spectrum describes the range of Doppler
shifts, with maximum shifts occurring when local
scatterers move opposite to the mobile's direction.
 Multipath Fading
• Multipath in the mobile communication channel
creates small-scale fading effects such as rapid
changes in signal strength over a small time interval
or small distance traveled by a mobile
• fading is the rapid fluctuation of signal amplitude
due to the mobile unit's movement and multipath
propagation
• Small-scale fading includes rapid signal strength
changes, random frequency modulation from
Doppler shifts, and time dispersion due to
propagation delays.
 Cont…,
• Multipath fading arises from multiple signal
components combining constructively or destructively,
especially in urban areas where antenna heights are
lower than surrounding structures.
• Fading is influenced by factors like the mobile's speed,
surrounding object speed, and signal bandwidth.
• There are two primary causes of rapid signal
fluctuations:
• Multipath fading (signals arriving via different paths).
• Doppler effect (caused by relative movement between
the mobile and transmitter).
 Cont…,
• Multipath fading results in fluctuations of the signal
amplitude because of the addition of signals arriving
with different phases.
• This phase difference is caused due to the fact that
signals have traveled different path lengths.
• The received signal amplitude undergoes rapid
fluctuation that is often modeled as a random
variable with a particular distribution, called
Rayleigh distribution.
• The multipath waves at the mobile receiver bounce
back and forth due to the surrounding buildings and
other structures, as shown in Fig. 2.5.
Cont…,
Explain flat fading and frequency selective fading or Explain
the effect of fading
• F a d i n g e f f e c t s in a mobile radio environment
can be classified as – fading effects due to multipath
time delay spread; and – fading effects due to Doppler
spread
• Due to multipath time-delay spread, fading effects can
also be classified as flat fading and frequency selective
fading
• Flat Fading (or non-selective fading) occurs when all
frequency components of a received signal fluctuate
together.
• It happens when the channel's bandwidth is greater
than the transmitted signal's bandwidth, meaning the
 Cont…,
• In flat fading channels (also called narrowband
channels), the transmitted signal's bandwidth is
much larger than the reciprocal of the multipath
time delay spread.
• Flat fading is commonly modeled using the
Rayleigh distribution.
• During deep fades, increasing the transmitter power
by 20-30 dB helps reduce bit-error rates and
improve communication reliability.
 Cont…,
• Frequency-selective fading affects different parts
of a signal's spectrum unevenly.
• It happens when the channel's bandwidth is smaller
than the transmitted signal's bandwidth.
• In this case, the signal experiences fading over
certain frequency ranges, leading to distortion.
• This type of fading occurs due to multipath delay
spread, where the received signal contains multiple,
delayed versions of the transmitted signal.
 Cont…,
• The delay causes intersymbol interference and
distorts the signal.
• Since the fading varies across frequencies, it's hard
to compensate for the signal loss.
• Frequency-selective fading channels are also called
wideband channels, as the transmitted signal's
bandwidth is wider than the channel's impulse
response.
 Fast Fading
• Fast Fading:Occurs when the channel changes faster
than the signal.
• Coherence time is smaller than the symbol period.
• Leads to frequency dispersion and signal distortion
(Doppler spreading).
• Happens when Ts > Tf (symbol period > time
between fades).
Fast Fading Characteristics:
• Fast changes in signal strength over small distances
(~half a wavelength).
• Channel impulse response changes rapidly within the
 Cont…,
• Consider , suppose a mobile receiver moves directly away
from the transmitting antenna but toward a reflecting
surface. This particular scenario is depicted in Fig. 2.6
• When a mobile moves λc/4 away from the transmitting
antenna, a 180-degree phase shift occurs between direct
and reflected signals, causing partial cancellation (fading
up to 50 dB).
• Fades happen every time the mobile moves a distance of
λc/2.
• Time Between Fades (Tf):
• λc: Wavelength of carrier signal.
• Vm: Speed of the mobile.
• fc: Frequency of the signal.
Cont…,
 problem
• A mobile subscriber travels at a uniform speed of 60 km/h.
Compute the time between fades if the mobile uses (a) a cellphone
operating at 900 MHz (b) a PCS phone operating at 1900 MHz
Comment on the results obtained

• Comments on the results It is observed that the rapidity of the fading

increases with the frequency of the transmission at the same speed of the
 Multipath Delay Spread
• Multipath Interference:
• Caused by radio signals reflecting off concrete
structures, resulting in multiple copies of the
received signal.
• Can help reach difficult areas but also leads to issues
like delay spread.
Delay Spread:
• Occurs when signals arrive at different times due to
varying transmission paths.
• Influenced by Rayleigh fading, which alters the
amplitude and phase of signals due to reflections.
 Cont…,
• Intersymbol Interference (ISI):
• Delay spread can cause ISI when the spread of received
waveforms overlaps neighboring symbols.
• This results in errors in detected signals and limits the
maximum symbol rate of a digital multipath channel.
• Each radio signal follows a different path length, leading to
varied arrival times.
• The spreading effect of the received signal is referred to as
delay spread.
• For low bit-error rate (BER) performance, the transmission
data rate (Tr​) must be less than
 Cont…,
• Average delay spreads are approximately:Urban
areas: 3 microseconds
• The root mean square (RMS) delay spread varies by
environment:
• Urban microcells: A few microseconds
• Indoor residential: As low as 30 nanoseconds
• Indoor factories: Up to 300 nanoseconds
• Maximum data rates based on RMS delay spread is :
• Outdoor applications: About 50 kbps (with 4
microseconds RMS delay spread)
• Indoor applications: About 6.7 Mbps (with 30
CONT…,
 Doppler Shift
• Multipath propagation, speed of mobile unit, speed of reflecting
objects, and Doppler shift are the main causes of fading.
• Multipath propagation can result in a positive or negative
Doppler shift
• Rayleigh fading is also called multipath fading in the mobile
radio environment.
• Speed of reflecting objects can induce their own Doppler shift
in the reflected wave.
• D o p p l e r f r e q u e n c y o r D o p p l e r s h i f t is
given by

• Vm cos θ represents the velocity component of the motion of

the mobile in the direction of the incoming signal
 Cont…,
• The maximum Doppler frequency will be obtained
when the mobile unit is moving in line with the
direction of the received signal, that is, θ = 0 degree
or cos θ = 1.

• When a pure sinusoidal carrier signal having

frequency fc is transmitted, the received signal
spectrum, called the Doppler spectrum, will have
components in the range fc – fd to fc + fd
• Doppler shift will be positive or negative depending
on whether the mobile receiver is moving toward or
away from the base station transmitter.
 Coherence Bandwidth
• The coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of
frequencies over which the channel can be considered flat
• The coherence bandwidth Bc represents the correlation between two
fading signal envelopes at frequencies f1 and f2 and is a function of
the delay spread Td
• When the correlation coefficient between two fading signal envelopes
at frequencies f1 and f2 is equal to 0.5, the coherence bandwidth Bc is
approximated by:

• Two frequencies that are larger than the coherence bandwidth fade
independently. This concept is also useful for diversity reception
• The coherence bandwidth for two fading amplitudes of two received
signals is given as
 Coherence Time
• Coherence time is the time duration over which two
received signals have a strong potential for amplitude
correlation.
• In other words, coherence time Tc is inversely proportional
to the Doppler spread.
• It is used to characterize the time-varying nature of the
frequency depressiveness of the channel in the time domain
• If the coherence time is defined as the time over which the
time correlation function is above 0.5, then the coherence
time is approximately given by
• Consider a base-station transmitter operating at 900 MHz carrier
frequency. For a mobile moving at a speed of 72 km/h, calculate the
received carrier frequency if the mobile is moving (a) directly away
from the base-station transmitter (b) directly towards the base-station
transmitter (c) in a direction which is 60 degrees to the direction of
arrival of the transmitted signal (d) in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of arrival of the transmitted signal

• a)
 Cont…,
d) In this case, θ = 90ο , cos θ = cos 90ο = 0.
• So there is no Doppler shift. Step 11. The received signal frequency is the same as
the transmitted frequency. Hence, the received carrier frequency = 900 MHz
• Problem no 2
• Consider that a mobile subscriber traveling at a uniform velocity of 96 kmph
receive digital data from a wireless communication system operating at 900 MHz
carrier frequency. What should be the symbol rate so as to receive distortionless
transmission?
• Velocity of the mobile, Vm = 96 km/h or 26.67 m/s (given)
• Frequency of operation, fc = 900 MHz (given)
• Wavelength of signal, λc = c/fc Therefore,
• To determine maximum Doppler frequency, fdm Maximum Doppler frequency,
• fdm = Vm / λc

•
 2nd part

Principles of Cellular
Communications
 Cellular terminology
• A hexagonal cell shape is commonly used to
approximate the radio coverage area.
• The cell shape can be circular in an ideal radio
environment, where the cell periphery corresponds to
the acceptable signal strength.
• A square shape is an alternative representation for
the cell area.
• Factors affecting cell shape: antenna height, terrain,
buildings, vegetation, and atmospheric conditions can
lead to an irregular or zigzag shape.
• The Base Station (Cell-Site) is located at the center
of the cell and serves all mobile users within that cell.
Cont…,
 Cell structure and Cluster
• In practice, cells have arbitrary shapes that are close to
circular, resembling the ideal radiation pattern of an
omnidirectional antenna.
• Using circular cell shapes results in overlaps or gaps,
which is undesirable.
• Therefore, a regular hexagonal topology is preferred
over a circular layout to tightly pack cells.
• The middle dark circles represent cell-sites.
• A cell-site gives radio signal coverage to a cell
• the cell is a wide geographical service area.
• The cell shape can be of only three types of regular
polygons: equilateral triangle, square, or regular hexagon
 Cont…,
• A hexagonal topology provides the best non-
overlapping cell coverage and closely approximates a
circular area.
• The hexagon has the largest area for a given radius
compared to other shapes like octagons and decagons,
which cannot divide a larger area into equal non-
overlapping subregions.
• Multiple transmitter sites are required for large areas,
but irregular cell shapes make system design inefficient
and uneconomical.
• In most modeling, simulation, and interference analysis,
hexagons are used to simplify cellular system planning
by avoiding overlap and gaps between adjacent cells.
Cont…,
 Cont…,
• A Cellular Cluster A group of cells that use a
different set of frequencies in each cell is called a
cellular cluster.
• Thus, a cluster is a group of cells with no reuse of
channels within it.
• Some common reuse cluster patterns are given in
Fig. 4.5.
• Two or more different cells can use the same set of
frequencies or channels
• That means, the cluster can be repeated any number
of times in a systematic manner in order to cover the
designated large geographical service area.
Cont…,
problems
• Calculate the number of times the cluster of size 4
have to be replicated in order to approximately
cover the entire service area of 1765 km2 with the
adequate number of uniform-sized cells of 7 km2
each
Problem
Cont…,
 FREQUENCY REUSE CONCEPT
• The design process of selecting and allocating
channel groups for all the cellular base stations
within a system is called frequency reuse
Benefits:
• Large Coverage Area: Allows multiple base
stations to cover a wide area.
• Efficient Spectrum Use: Reuses frequencies to
optimize available spectrum.
• Increased Capacity: Serves more users
simultaneously.
 Cont…,
• Challenges: Proper system design is essential due to
potential interference in complex mobile
environments.
• Cell Structure: Regular hexagonal patterns are
ideal for coverage
• Capacity: The total number of channels in a system
is limited by the available RF spectrum, determined
by the allocation and deployment of those channels.
 Cont…,
• Interference Management:
• Cochannel Interference: This occurs when cells
using the same frequency are too close to each
other. It can be reduced by spacing the cells apart
geographically.
• Adjacent-Channel Interference: This happens
when adjacent cells interfere with each other due to
their frequencies.
• It largely depends on the quality of the receiver
filters used and how signals outside the desired
frequency band are handled.
 Cont…,
• Each cell in a network is assigned a limited number
of RF channels based on the expected number of
simultaneous users.
• adjacent cells in the same cluster must operate on
different frequencies to avoid interference.
• The total number of available channels in a cellular
system is finite due to limited RF spectrum
allocation.
• the total number of channels available without
frequency reuse can be calculated by dividing the
allocated RF spectrum band by the number of
channels within that band.
Cont…,
problem
Cont…,
 CLUSTER SIZE AND SYSTEM CAPACITY
• The K number of cells in the cluster would utilise all
N available channels.
• Each cell in the cluster contains N/K number of
channels only.
• Alternately, the total number of channels available
in a cluster, N is equal to the number of channels per
cell (J ≤ N) multiplied by the number of cells per
cluster (K), that is, N = J × K
• total number of channels allocated to a cluster, N,
i.e., C = M × N
• Using the relationship N = J × K, we get C = M × J
×K
 FREQUENCY REUSE DISTANCE
• Reusing an identical frequency channel in different
cells is limited by cochannel interference between
cells and the cochannel interference can become a
major problem in cellular communication
• (Minimum frequency reuse distance) D decides to
reduce this cochannel interference.
• D depends on many factors such as
1. The number of cochannel cells in the vicinity
(neighbourhood) of the centre cell,
2. The type of geographic terrain contour,
3. The antenna height, and
 Cont…,
• Frequency Reuse Ratio (q): Cochannel
interference is related to the frequency reuse ratio,
defined as

• D is the distance between two nearest cochannel

cells.
• R is the radius of the cells.
• The parameter q is also referred to as the cochannel
reuse ratio or the cochannel reuse factor or
cochannel interference reduction factor or frequency
reuse ratio.
problem
COCHANNEL INTERFERENCE AND SIGNAL QUALITY
• The cochannel interference is caused due to the reuse of the
same carrier frequency at different geographical locations.
• How It Affects Receivers:

• Since cochannel interference signals are processed similarly

to the desired signal, they can interfere with the receiver's
ability to distinguish between the two. This interference can:
• Desensitize the Receiver: Make it less responsive to signals.
• Override or Mask the Desired Signal: Cause the intended
signal to be lost or obscured.
• Distort the Detected Output: Combine with the desired
signal, leading to serious distortions.
 Cont…,
• In a hexagonal-shaped cellular system, there are
typically six cochannel interfering cells
• In the first tier surrounding a central cell, which can
contribute to the overall interference experienced by
the receiver.
• To measure cochannel interference at the mobile
unit, in which the mobile unit is moving in its
serving cell.
 Cont…,
• Let the symbol C, I, and N denote respectively the
power of the desired signal, the power of the
cochannel interference, and the power of the noise at
the output of the receiver demodulator.
• Interference at Cell-Site and Mobile Units:
• The average carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I) at
mobile units due to interference from six surrounding
cell sites is similar to the C/I ratio at the serving cell
site from interfering mobile units in those cells.
• According to the reciprocity theorem and statistical
principles of radio propagation, the two C/I values
can be nearly equal.
 Cont….,or explain test 2 operation to measure COI
• A mobile receiver can record three types of signals
while moving through a cochannel cell:
• C: Signal recorded when only the serving cell
transmits.
• I: Signal recorded when all six cochannel cells are
transmitting.
• N: Signal recorded when no cell site is transmitting.
• The reciprocity theorem can be applied for the study of
area coverage problem but not so accurately for the
study of cochannel interference problem at the cell-site.
• Therefore, it is recommended to perform Test 2 to
measure cochannel interference at the cell-site
 Cont…,
• To measure cochannel interference at a cell-site in a cellular
communication system.
• The received signal-level measurements are recorded at the
serving cell-site, under the following conditions:
1. When only the mobile unit in the serving cell transmits
(signal recorded is termed as C)
2. Up to six interference levels are obtained at the serving
cell-site from six mobile units transmitting in six cochannel
interfering cells (the statistical average signal recorded is
termed as I)
3. No transmission by any mobile unit (signal recorded is
termed as N)
4. Then the C/I and C/N received at the serving cell site is
• Calculate the carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I) using
the measured values to evaluate the impact of
interference on the desired signal.
THANK YOU