Seeley’s

ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables

pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Week 16

Nervous System Part 2

Lecture Outline

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The Nervous System

• The nervous system can be divided into the
central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system.
• The central nervous system (CNS), consists of
the brain and spinal cord.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists
of all the nerves and ganglia outside the brain
and spinal cord.

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Spinal Cord
• Extends from
foramen magnum to
2nd lumbar vertebra
• Protected by
vertebral column
• Spinal nerves allow
movement
• If damaged paralysis
can occur
Figure 8.15
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Gray Matter and White Matter

Gray Matter:
• center of spinal cord
• looks like letter H or a butterfly
White Matter:
• outside of spinal cord
• contains myelinated fibers

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White Matter in Spinal Cord

Located in the white matter of the CNS are three
columns: dorsal, ventral, and lateral.
Columns contain ascending and descending tracts.
Ascending tracts:
• axons that conduct action potentials toward the
brain
Descending tracts:
• axons that conduct action potentials away from
the brain
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Gray Matter in Spinal Cord

The gray matter has a letter H shape with horns.
Posterior horns:
• contain axons which synapse with interneurons
Anterior horns:
• contain somatic neurons
Lateral horns:
• contain autonomic neurons
Central canal:
• fluid filled space in center of cord
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Spinal Cord Cross Section

Figure 8.16
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Reflexes 1

• A reflex is an involuntary reaction in response

to a stimulus applied to the periphery and
transmitted to the CNS.
• The simplest reflex is the stretch reflex.
• A stretch reflex occurs when muscles contract
in response to a stretching force applied to
them.
• The knee-jerk reflex, or patellar reflex is a
classic example of a stretch reflex.
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Reflexes 2

• The withdrawal reflex, or flexor reflex, is to

remove a limb or another body part from a
painful stimulus.
• The sensory receptors are pain receptors, and
stimulation of these receptors initiates the
reflex.

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Withdrawal Reflex

Figure 8.19
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Spinal Nerves
• Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal
roots and ventral roots
• Contain axons sensory and somatic neurons
• Located between vertebra
• Categorized by region of vertebral column
from which it emerges (C for cervical)
• 31 pairs
• Organized in 3 plexuses
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Cervical Plexus
• Spinal nerves C1-4
• Innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone
and neck
• Contains phrenic nerve which innervates
diaphragm

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Brachial Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1
• Supply nerves to upper limb, shoulder, hand

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Lumbosacral Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
• Supply nerves lower limbs

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Plexuses

Figure 8.20a
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Dermatome 1

• The nerves arising from each region of the

spinal cord and vertebral column supply
specific regions of the body.
• A dermatome is the area of skin supplied
with sensory innervation by a pair of spinal
nerves.
• Each of the spinal nerves except C1 has a
specific cutaneous sensory distribution.

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Dermatome 2

Figure 8.20b
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Brainstem

Components:
• Medulla oblongata
• Pons
• Midbrain Figure 8.21
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Brainstem Components 1

Medulla oblongata
Location:
• continuous with spinal cord
Function:
• regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter,
breathing, swallowing, vomiting, hiccupping,
coughing, sneezing, balance
Other:
• pyramids: involved in conscious control of skeletal
muscle
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Brainstem Components 2

Pons
Location:
• above medulla, bridge between cerebrum and
cerebellum
Function:
• breathing, chewing, salivation, swallowing, relay
station between cerebrum and cerebellum

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Brainstem Components 3

Midbrain
Location:
• above pons
Function:
• coordinated eye movement, pupil diameter,
turning head toward noise
Other:
• the dorsal part has the four colliculi which are
involved in visual and auditory reflexes

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Brainstem Components 4

Reticular Formation
Location:
• scattered throughout brainstem
Function:
• regulates cyclical motor function, respiration,
walking, chewing, arousing and maintaining
consciousness, regulates sleep-wake cycle

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Cerebellum
Location:
• attached to the brainstem by the cerebellar
peduncles
Characteristics:
• means little brain
• cortex is composed of gyri, sulci, gray matter
Functions:
• controls balance
• muscle tone
• coordination of fine motor
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Diencephalon 1

Located between the brainstem and cerebrum

Components:
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus Figure 8.21
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Diencephalon Components 1

Thalamus
Characteristics:
• largest portion of diencephalon
Function:
• influences moods and detects pain

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Diencephalon Components 2

Epithalamus:
Location:
• above thalamus
Function:
• emotional and visceral response to odors

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Diencephalon Components 3

Hypothalamus
Location:
• below thalamus
Characteristics:
• controls pituitary gland and is connected to it by
infundibulum
Function:
• controls homeostasis, body temp, thirst, hunger,
fear, rage, sexual emotions
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Diencephalon 2

Figure 8.23
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Cerebrum Characteristics
Largest portion of
brain
Divisions:
• Right hemisphere
• Left hemisphere
separated by
longitudinal fissure
Lobes: frontal,
parietal,
occipital, temporal,
insula (fifth lobe)
Figure 8.24b
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Cerebrum Components
Cerebral Cortex
Location:
• surface of cerebrum, composed of gray matter

Function:
• controls thinking, communicating,
• remembering, understanding, and initiates
• involuntary movements

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Cerebrum Surface Features

Gyri:
• folds on cerebral cortex that increase surface area

Sulci:
• shallow indentations

Fissure:
• deep indentations

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Cerebral Hemispheres
Left hemisphere:
• controls right side of body
• responsible for math, analytic, and speech

Right hemisphere:
• controls left side of body
• responsible for music, art, abstract ideas

Corpus callosum:
• connection between the two hemispheres
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Lobes of the Brain 1

Frontal lobe
• Location: front
• Function: controls voluntary motor functions,
aggression, moods, smell
Parietal lobe
• Location: top
• Function: evaluates sensory input such as touch,
pain, pressure, temperature, taste

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Lobes of the Brain 2

Occipital lobe
• Location: back
• Function: vision

Temporal lobe
• Location: sides
• Function: hearing, smell, memory

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Cerebrum 1

Figure 8.24a
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Cerebrum 2

Figure 8.24b
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Sensory Functions
• CNS constantly receives sensory input
• We are unaware of most sensory input
• Sensory input is vital of our survival and
normal functions

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Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex

Primary sensory areas:
• where ascending tracts project
• where sensations are perceived

Primary somatic sensory cortex:

• general sensory area
• in parietal lobe
• sensory input such as pain, pressure, temp.

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Somatic Motor Functions 1

Somatic motor neurons innervate skeletal

muscles.
The somatic motor system is responsible for:
• maintaining the body’s posture and balance
• moving the trunk, head, limbs, tongue, and eyes
• communicating through facial expressions and
speech

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Somatic Motor Functions 2

• Upper motor neurons have cell bodies in the

cerebral cortex and project down the spinal
cord to synapse with lower motor neurons.
• Lower motor neurons have cell bodies in the
anterior horn of the spinal cord gray matter or
in cranial nerve nuclei.
• The axons of lower motor neurons leave the
central nervous system and extend through
spinal or cranial nerves to skeletal muscles.
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Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex

Primary motor cortex:
• frontal lobe
• control voluntary motor movement
Premotor area:
• frontal lobe
• where motor functions are organized before initiation
Prefrontal area:
• motivation and foresight to plan and initiate
movement
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 Sensory and Motor Areas of the 44

Cerebral Cortex

Figure 8.27
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Descending Tracts 3

• Crossover of axons in the brainstem or spinal

cord to the opposite side of the body is typical
of descending pathways.
• The left side of the brain controls skeletal
muscles on the right side of the body, and vice
versa.

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Descending Tracts

Figure 8.28
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Direct Motor Tract

Figure 8.29
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Basal Nuclei 1

Group of functionally related nuclei

Plan, organize, coordinate motor movements
and posture
Corpus striatum:
• deep in cerebrum

Substantia nigra:
• in midbrain

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Basal Nuclei 2

Figure 8.30
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Speech
Mainly in left hemisphere
Sensory speech (Wernicke’s area):
• parietal lobe
• where words are heard and comprehended

Motor speech (Broca’s area):

• frontal lobe
• where words are formulated

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Brain Waves and Consciousness

• Used to diagnose and determine treatment for
brain disorders
Electroencephalogram (EEG):
• electrodes plated on scalp to record brain’s
electrical activity

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Brain Waves
Alpha waves:
• person is awake in quiet state

Beta waves:
• intense mental activity

Delta waves:
• deep sleep

Theta waves:
• in children
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Electroencephalogram

Figure 8.23
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Memory 1

Encoding:
• brief retention of sensory input received by
• brain while something is scanned, evaluated, and
acted up
• also called sensory memory
• in temporal lobe
• lasts less than a second

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Memory 2

Consolidated:
• data that has been encoded
• temporal lobe
• short term memory
Storage:
• long term memory
• few minutes or permanently (depends on retrieval)
Retrieval:
• how often information is used
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Types of Memory
Short-term memory:
• info. is retained for a few seconds or min.
• bits of info. (usually 7)
Long-term memory:
• can last for a few minutes or permanently
Episodic memory:
• places or events
Learning:
• utilizing past memories
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Limbic System and Emotions 1

• The olfactory cortex and certain deep cortical

regions and nuclei of the cerebrum and the
diencephalon are grouped together under the
title limbic system.
• The limbic system influences long-term
declarative memory, emotions, visceral
responses to emotions, motivation, and mood.

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Limbic System and Emotions 3

Figure 8.33
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Meninges 1

• The meninges are three connective tissue

layers that surround the brain and spinal cord.
• The outermost (most superficial) meningeal
layer is the dura mater, which is the toughest
of all the meninges.
• The dura mater forms two layers around the
brain and only one layer around the spinal
cord.
• The second meningeal membrane is the very
thin, wispy arachnoid mater.
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Meninges 2

• The space between the dura mater and the

arachnoid mater is the subdural space, which
is normally only a potential space containing a
very small amount of serous fluid.
• Cerebrospinal fluid is and blood vessels are
found in the subarachnoid space.
• The third meningeal membrane, the pia
mater, is very tightly bound to the surface of
the brain and spinal cord.
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Meninges

Figure 8.34
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Ventricles 1

• The CNS contains fluid-filled cavities, called

ventricles.
• Each cerebral hemisphere contains a relatively
large cavity called the lateral ventricle.
• The third ventricle is a smaller, midline cavity
located in the center of the diencephalon
between the two halves of the thalamus and
connected by foramina (holes) to the lateral
ventricles.
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Ventricles 2

• The fourth ventricle is located at the base of

the cerebellum and connected to the third
ventricle by a narrow canal, called the cerebral
aqueduct.
• The fourth ventricle is continuous with the
central canal of the spinal cord.
• The fourth ventricle also opens into the
subarachnoid space through foramina in its
walls and roof.
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Brain Ventricles

Figure 8.35
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Cerebrospinal Fluid 1

• Cerebrospinal Fluid Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a
protective cushion around the CNS.
• The ependymal cells located in the choroid
plexuses of the ventricles produce the CSF.
• CSF fills the brain ventricles, the central canal
of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid
space.

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Cerebrospinal Fluid 2

• The CSF flows from the lateral ventricles into

the third ventricle and then through the
cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle.
• A small amount of CSF enters the central canal
of the spinal cord.
• The CSF exits the fourth ventricle through
small openings in its walls and roof and enters
the subarachnoid space.

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Cerebrospinal Fluid 3

• Masses of arachnoid tissue, called arachnoid

granulations, penetrate the superior sagittal
sinus, a dural venous sinus in the longitudinal
fissure, and CSF passes from the subarachnoid
space into the blood through these
granulations.

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Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 8.36
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Cranial Nerves 1

• 12 pair of cranial nerves

• Named by roman numerals
• 2 categories of functions: sensory and motor

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Cranial Nerves 2

• Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory) is a pure sensory

nerve for smell
• Cranial Nerve II (Optic) is a pure sensory nerve
for vision
• Cranial Nerve III (Occulomotor) is a pure
motor nerve for eye movement
• Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear) is a pure motor
nerve for eye movement

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Cranial Nerves 3

• Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) is both a motor

and sensory nerve. It is sensory for pain,
touch, and temperature for the eye and lower
and upper jaws. It is motor for muscles of
chewing.
• Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) is a pure motor
nerve for eye movement
• Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) is both a sensory and
motor nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor
for facial expression.
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Cranial Nerves 4

• Cranial Nerve VIII (Vestibulocochlear) is a pure

sensory nerve for hearing and equilibrium
• Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal) is both a
motor and sensory nerve. It is sensory for taste
and motor for swallowing.
• Cranial Nerve X (Vagus) is both a motor and
sensory nerve. It is sensory and motor for
organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

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Cranial Nerves 5

• Cranial Nerve XI (Accessory) is a pure motor

nerve for the trapezius, sternocleidomastoid,
and muscles of the larynx.
• Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal) is a pure
motor nerve for the tongue

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Mnemonic for 12 Cranial Nerves

Crainial Nerves Mnemonics
Olfactory Oohhh Some
Optic Oohhh Say
Occulomotor Oohhh Marry
Trochlear To money
Trigeminal Touch But
Abducens And My
Facial Feel Brother
Vestibulocochlear Virgin Says
Glossopharyngeal Girl Bad
Vagus Vagina Business
Accessory Ahhhh Marry
Hypoglossal Heavenly Money

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Cranial Nerves 6

Figure 8.37
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Autonomic Nervous System 1

• The autonomic neurons innervate smooth

muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
• Autonomic functions are largely controlled
unconsciously.
• The autonomic nervous system is composed of
the sympathetic division and the
parasympathetic division.

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Autonomic Functioning
Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
• Response to unusual stimulus
• Takes over to increase activities
• Remember as the “E” division = exercise,
excitement, emergency, and embarrassment

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Autonomic Functioning
Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites
• Conserves energy
• Maintains daily necessary body functions
• Remember as the “D” division - digestion,
defecation, and diuresis

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