Temperature and Heat

When matter gets

warmer, the atoms or
molecules in the matter
move faster.
All matter—solid,
liquid, and gas—is
composed of
continually jiggling
atoms or molecules.
Because of this
random motion, the
atoms and
molecules in matter
have kinetic energy.
The average kinetic
energy of these
individual particles
causes an effect we
can sense—warmth.
21.1 Temperature

The higher the temperature of a substance,

the faster is the motion of its molecules.
21.1 Temperature
The quantity that tells how hot or cold something is compared with a
standard is temperature.
Nearly all matter expands when its temperature increases and contracts
when its temperature decreases.
A common thermometer measures temperature by showing the
expansion and contraction of a liquid in a glass tube using a scale.
21.1 Temperature
Celsius Scale
The most widely used temperature scale is the Celsius scale.
• The number 0 is the temperature at which water freezes.
• The number 100 is the temperature at which water boils.
The gap between freezing and boiling is divided into 100 equal parts,
called degrees.
21.1 Temperature
Fahrenheit Scale
The temperature scale used commonly in the United States is the
Fahrenheit scale.
• The number 32 is the temperature at which water freezes.
• The number 212 is the temperature at which water boils.
• The Fahrenheit scale will become obsolete if and when the United
States goes metric.
21.1 Temperature
Kelvin Scale
Scientific research uses the SI scale—the Kelvin scale.
• Degrees are the same size as the Celsius degree and are called
“kelvins.”
• On the Kelvin scale, the number 0 is assigned to the lowest
possible temperature—absolute zero.
• At absolute zero a substance has no kinetic energy to give up.
• Zero on the Kelvin scale corresponds to -273°C.
21.1 Temperature
Scale Conversion
Arithmetic formulas can be used for converting from one temperature
scale to another.
A conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit, or vice versa, can be very
closely approximated by simply reading the corresponding temperature
from side-by-side scales.
21.1 Temperature
This thermometer measures temperature
on both Fahrenheit and Celsius scales.
21.1 Temperature
Temperature and Kinetic Energy
Temperature is related to the random motions of the molecules in a
substance.
In the simplest case of an ideal gas, temperature is proportional to the
average kinetic energy of molecular translational motion.
21.1 Temperature
In solids and liquids, where molecules are more constrained and have
potential energy, temperature is more complicated.
The warmth you feel when you touch a hot surface is the kinetic energy
transferred by molecules in the surface to molecules in your fingers.
21.1 Temperature
Temperature is not a measure of the total kinetic energy of all the
molecules in a substance.
Two liters of boiling water have twice as much kinetic energy as one liter.
The temperatures are the same because the average kinetic energy of
molecules in each is the same.
21.1 Temperature
There is more molecular kinetic energy in the bucketful of warm water
than in the small cupful of higher-temperature water.
21.2 Heat

When two substances of different

temperatures are in thermal contact,
heat flows from the higher-temperature
substance into the lower-temperature
substance.
21.2 Heat
If you touch a hot stove, energy enters your hand from the stove
because the stove is warmer than your hand.
If you touch ice, energy passes from your hand into the colder ice.
The direction of spontaneous energy transfer is always from a
warmer to a cooler substance.
The energy that transfers from one object to another because of a
temperature difference between them is called heat.
21.2 Heat
It is common—but incorrect with physics types—to think that
matter contains heat.
Matter contains energy but it does not contain heat.
Heat is energy in transit, moving from a body of higher
temperature to one of lower temperature.
21.2 Heat
Once transferred, the energy ceases to be heat.
Previously, we call the energy resulting from heat flow thermal
energy, to make clear its link to heat and temperature.
We will use the term that scientists prefer, internal energy.
When heat flows from one object or substance to another it is in
contact with, the objects are said to be in thermal contact.
21.2 Heat
Heat will not necessarily flow from a
substance with more total molecular
kinetic energy to a substance with less.
• There is more total molecular kinetic
energy in a large bowl of warm water
than there is in a red-hot thumbtack.
• If the tack is immersed in the water,
heat flows from the hot tack to the
cooler water.
• Heat flows according to temperature
differences—that is, average
molecular kinetic energy differences.
• Heat never flows on its own from a
cooler substance into a hotter
substance.
21.2 Heat
Just as water will not flow
uphill by itself, regardless of
the relative amounts of water
in the reservoirs, heat will not
flow from a cooler substance
into a hotter substance by
itself.
21.3 Thermal Equilibrium

When a thermometer is in contact with a

substance, heat flows between them
until they have the same temperature.
21.3 Thermal Equilibrium
After objects in thermal contact with each other reach the
same temperature, we say the objects are in thermal
equilibrium.
When objects are in thermal equilibrium, no heat flows
between them.
21.3 Thermal Equilibrium
To read a thermometer we wait until it reaches thermal
equilibrium with the substance being measured.
The temperature of the thermometer is also the temperature of
the substance.
A thermometer should be small enough that it does not
appreciably alter the temperature of the substance being
measured.
21.3 Thermal Equilibrium
Water seeks a common level with pressures at equal elevations
the same. The thermometer and its surroundings reach a
common temperature with the average kinetic energy per
particle the same.
21.3 Thermal Equilibrium
think!
Suppose you use a flame to add heat to 1 liter of water, and the
water temperature rises by 2°C. If you add the same quantity of
heat to 2 liters of water, by how much will its temperature rise?
21.3 Thermal Equilibrium
think!
Suppose you use a flame to add heat to 1 liter of water, and the
water temperature rises by 2°C. If you add the same quantity of
heat to 2 liters of water, by how much will its temperature rise?

Answer:
Its temperature will rise by 1°C, because there are twice as
many molecules in 2 liters of water and each molecule receives
only half as much energy on average.
21.4 Internal Energy

When a substance takes in or gives off

heat, its internal energy changes.
21.4 Internal Energy
In addition to the translational kinetic
energy of jostling molecules in a
substance, there is energy in other
forms.
• There is rotational kinetic energy
of molecules.
• There is kinetic energy due to
internal movements of atoms
within molecules.
• There is potential energy due to
the forces between molecules.
• The total of all energies inside a
substance is called internal
energy. A substance contains
internal energy, not heat.
21.4 Internal Energy
Absorbed heat may make the molecules of a substance jostle
faster.
In some cases, as when ice is melting, a substance absorbs heat
without an increase in temperature.
The substance then changes phase.
21.5 Measurement of Heat

The amount of heat transferred can be

determined by measuring the
temperature change of a known mass of a
substance that absorbs the heat.
21.5 Measurement of Heat
Heat is energy transferred from one substance to another by a
temperature difference.
When a substance absorbs heat, the resulting temperature
change depends on more than just the mass of the substance.
To quantify heat, we must specify the mass and kind of substance
affected.
21.5 Measurement of Heat
Although the same quantity of heat is added to both containers,
the temperature of the container with less water increases more.
21.5 Measurement of Heat
The unit of heat is defined as the heat necessary to produce a
standard temperature change for a specified mass of material.
The most commonly used unit for heat is the calorie.
The calorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C.
21.5 Measurement of Heat
The kilocalorie is 1000 calories (the heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1°C).
The heat unit used in rating foods is actually a kilocalorie,
although it’s often referred to as the calorie.
To distinguish it from the smaller calorie, the food unit is
sometimes called a Calorie (written with a capital C).
21.5 Measurement of Heat
The calorie and the Calorie are units of energy.
In the International System of Units (SI), quantity of heat is
measured in joules, the SI unit for all forms of energy.
One calorie equals 4.186 J.
21.5 Measurement of Heat
The energy value in food is determined by burning the food and
measuring the energy that is released as heat.
Food and other fuels are rated by how much energy a certain
mass of the fuel gives off as heat when burned.
21.5 Measurement of Heat
To the weight watcher, the peanut contains 10 Calories; to the
physicist, it releases 10,000 calories (or 41,860 joules) of energy
when burned or digested.
21.5 Measurement of Heat
think!
Which will raise the temperature more, adding 1
calorie or 4.186 joules?
21.5 Measurement of Heat
think!
Which will raise the temperature more, adding 1
calorie or 4.186 joules?

Answer:
Both are the same. This is like asking which is longer,
a 1-mile-long track or a 1.6-kilometer-long track.
They’re
the same quantity expressed in different units.
21.5 Measurement of Heat

How can you determine the amount of heat

transferred to a substance?
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity

The capacity of a substance to store heat

depends on its chemical composition.
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
Some foods remain hot much longer than others.
• Boiled onions, for example, are often too hot to eat while
mashed potatoes may be just right.
• The filling of hot apple pie can burn your tongue while the
crust will not when the pie has just been taken out of the
oven.
• An aluminum foil covering can be peeled off with bare
fingers right out of the oven, but be careful of the food
beneath it.
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
You can touch the aluminum pan of the frozen dinner soon after it
has been taken from the hot oven, but you’ll burn your fingers if
you touch the food it contains.
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
Different substances have different capacities for storing internal
energy, or heat.
• A pot of water on a stove might require 15 minutes to be
heated from room temperature to its boiling temperature.
• An equal mass of iron on the same flame would rise through
the same temperature range in only about 2 minutes.
• For silver, the time would be less than a minute.
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
A material requires a specific amount of heat to raise the temperature of
a given mass a specified number of degrees.
The specific heat capacity of a material is the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 gram by 1 degree.
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
Recall that inertia is a term used in mechanics to signify the resistance of
an object to change in its state of motion.
Specific heat capacity is like a thermal inertia since it signifies the
resistance of a substance to change in its temperature.
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
A gram of water requires 1 calorie of energy to raise the temperature
1°C.
It takes only about one eighth as much energy to raise the temperature
of a gram of iron by the same amount.
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
Absorbed energy can affect substances in different ways.
• Absorbed energy that increases the translational speed of
molecules is responsible for increases in temperature.
• Temperature is a measure only of the kinetic energy of
translational motion.
• Absorbed energy may also increase the rotation of molecules,
increase the internal vibrations within molecules, or stretch
intermolecular bonds and be stored as potential energy.
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
Iron atoms in the iron lattice primarily shake back and forth, while water
molecules soak up a lot of energy in rotations, internal vibrations, and
bond stretching.
Water absorbs more heat per gram than iron for the same change in
temperature.
Water has a higher specific heat capacity (sometimes simply called
specific heat) than iron has.
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
think!
Which has a higher specific heat capacity—water or
sand? Explain.
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
think!
Which has a higher specific heat capacity—water or
sand? Explain.

Answer:
Water has a greater heat capacity than sand. Water is
much slower to warm in the hot sun and slower to
cool at night. Sand’s low heat capacity, shown by how
quickly it warms in the morning and how quickly it
cools at night, affects local climates.
21.7 The High Specific Heat Capacity of
Water

The property of water to resist changes in

temperature improves the climate in many
places.
21.7 The High Specific Heat Capacity of
Water
Water has a much higher capacity for storing energy than most common
materials.
A relatively small amount of water absorbs a great deal of heat for a
correspondingly small temperature rise.
21.7 The High Specific Heat Capacity of
Waterof this, water is a very useful cooling agent, and is used in
Because
cooling systems in automobiles and other engines.
For a liquid of lower specific heat capacity, temperature would rise
higher for a comparable absorption of heat.
Water also takes longer to cool.
21.7 The High Specific Heat Capacity of
Water
Water’s capacity to store heat affects the global climate.
Water takes more energy to heat up than land does.
Europe and the west coast of the United States both benefit from this
property of water.
21.7 The High Specific Heat Capacity of
Water
Water has a high specific heat and is transparent, so it takes more
energy to heat up than land does.
21.7 The High Specific Heat Capacity of
Water
Climate of Europe
Look at a world globe and notice the high latitude of Europe.
Both Europe and Canada get about the same amount of the sun’s energy
per square kilometer.
21.7 The High Specific Heat Capacity of
Water
The Atlantic current known as the Gulf Stream brings warm water
northeast from the Caribbean.
It holds much of its internal energy long enough to reach the North
Atlantic off the coast of Europe.
As it cools, the energy released is carried by the prevailing westerly
winds over the European continent.
21.7 The High Specific Heat Capacity of
Water
Climate of America
Climates differ on the east and west coasts of North America. The
prevailing winds in the latitudes of North America are westerly.
On the west coast, air moves from the Pacific Ocean to the land.
• In winter, the water warms the air that moves over it and warms
the western coastal regions of North America.
• In summer, the water cools the air and the western coastal
regions are cooled.
21.7 The High Specific Heat Capacity of
Water
On the east coast, air moves from the land to the Atlantic Ocean.
• Land, with a lower specific heat capacity, gets hot in summer but
cools rapidly in winter.
• San Francisco is warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer
than Washington, D.C., at about the same latitude.
The central interior of a large continent usually experiences extremes of
temperature.