NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

• ULTRASONIC TESTING
 ULTRASONIC TESTING
Contents
Introduction
Basic principle of U T
Types of sound waves
Velocity of sound wave
Ultrasonic Transducers
Attenuation
Test techniques
Data presentation
Inspection applications
Advantages of U T
Limitations of U T
 INTRODUCTION
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) utilizes high frequency acoustic
waves generated by piezoelectric transducers .

Frequency from 1 to 10 MHz are typically used.

Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw

detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements, material
characterization, and more.

It is also commonly used to measure wall thickness in tubes

and can measure diameters of bars.
 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF UT
A typical UT inspection system consists of several
functional units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and
display devices.
A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce
high voltage electrical pulses driven by the pulser, the
transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy.
The sound energy is introduced and propagates through
the materials in the form of waves.
When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave
path, part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw
surface.
The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical
signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen
Block diagram: Ultrasonic Instrument
 TYPES OF SOUND WAVES
Longitudinal wave
Transverse/shear wave
 LONGITUDINAL WAVE
In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction
or the direction of wave propagation.
Since compressional and dilational forces are active in these waves, they
are also called pressure or compressional waves.
Compression waves can be generated in fluids, as well as solids because
the energy travels through the atomic structure by a series of compression
and expansion (rarefaction) movements.
 TRANSVERSE OR SHEAR WAVE
In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or
transverse to the direction of propagation.
For such a wave to travel through a material, it is necessary that each
particle of the material is strongly bound to its neighbors so that as one
particle moves, it pulls its neighbor with it, so velocity is above half that of
longitudinal velocity.
Shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective
propagation, and therefore, are not effectively propagated in materials
such as liquids or gasses.
Shear waves are relatively weak when compared to longitudinal waves.
 VELOCITY OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
• Velocity of a sound wave in a material V = f×
• The velocity of propagation of longitudinal, transverse waves depends
on density of the material, it is independent of the frequency.
• Usually for a given frequency a defect which can be detected is of the
order of half the wavelength in that medium.
• Velocity of longitudinal, transverse and surface waves are given by
• VL = √E(1-µ)/ρ(1+µ)(1-µ)

• VT = √E/2ρ(1+µ) = √G/ρ
• Acoustic Impedance
Z=ρv E= Young’s Modulus
G= Modulus of Rigidity
µ= Poison’s Ratio
Ρ=Density of material
V = Sound velocity in the
material
 Attenuation
• When sound waves passes through materials the sound pressure is
essentially weakened by two physical process
1. Scattering
2. Absorption
 Scattering results from the fact that the material is not strictly
homogeneous such as cast iron and brass.
 Remedy for scattering is to lower the frequency.
 Absorption is a direct conversion of sound energy into heat for
which several processes like internal friction, elastic and magnetic
hysteresis, heat conduction etc are responsible.
 Remedies of absorption are to lower the frequency, increase the
transmission voltage and increase the amplification.
 ULTRASOUND GENERATION
Ultrasound is generated with a transducer.
A piezoelectric element in the transducer converts electrical energy
into mechanical vibrations (sound), and vice versa.
Quartz and some other crystal have a lattice structure such that if a
plate is cut out of the crystal with a certain orientation with respect
to the crystallographic axis, and subjected it to an electric field in the
right direction it will change its direction, it will contract or expands
according to the polarity of the field.
Conversely when a similar deformation of the plate is brought about
by an external mechanical force, electric charges appear on its
opposite surfaces.
The transducer is capable of both transmitting and receiving sound
energy.
 TYPES OF PROBES

Normal Beam Transducers

Angle Beam Transducers
Angle beam transducers are single element
transducers used with a wedge to introduce a refracted
shear wave or longitudinal wave into a test piece.
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

• PT’s contain polarized material

• When electric charge is applied,
dipoles are induced and
dimensions change
• If a force is placed on the material,
it will change dimensions and
create an electric field
 TEST TECHNIQUES

• Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection method, and

inspections can be accomplished in a number of different ways.

• Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided into

three primary classifications.
• Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is used)
• Normal Beam and Angle Beam
(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the test article)
 TEST TECHNIQUES - PULSE-ECHO
• In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy and
the same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy (an
echo).
• Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the
surfaces of the test article.
• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time,
which provides the inspector information about the size and the
location of features that reflect the sound. f

initial
pulse
back surface
echo

crack
echo
crack
0 2 4 6 8 10
plate

UT Instrument Screen
 TEST TECHNIQUES – PULSE-
ECHO (cont.)
Digital display showing
signal generated from
sound reflecting off back
surface.

Digital display showing the

presence of a reflector
midway through material, with
lower amplitude back surface
reflector.

The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one

side of the material is possible, and it allows the location of
reflectors to be precisely determined.
 TEST TECHNIQUES – THROUGH-
TRANSMISSION
• Two transducers located on 1
opposing sides of the test specimen 1

are used. One transducer acts as a T R

transmitter, the other as a receiver.

• Discontinuities in the sound path will
result in a partial or total loss of T R

sound being transmitted and be 2

indicated by a decrease in the
received signal amplitude.
• Through transmission is useful in
detecting discontinuities that are not 11

good reflectors, and when signal

strength is weak. It does not
provide depth information. 2

0 2 4 6 8 10
• Calculations:
Length of cement block (l)= 150mm
Time (t) = 38µs
Velocity = l/t, v = 3.9km/sec.
Velocity criteria for cement quality grading:

SL.NO PLUSE VELOSITY (Km/SEC) QUALITY GRADE

1 >4.5 EXCELLENT

2 3.5-4.5 GOOD

3 3.0-3.5 MEDIUM

4 <3.0 DOUTFUL
TEST TECHNIQUES – THROUGH-
TRANSMISSION

Digital display
showing received
sound through
material thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal due
to presence of a
discontinuity in the
sound field.
TEST TECHNIQUES – NORMAL AND ANGLE
BEAM

• In normal beam testing, the sound beam is

introduced into the test article at 90 degree to the
surface.
• In angle beam testing, the sound beam is
introduced into the test article at some angle
other than 90.
• The choice between normal and angle beam
inspection usually depends on two
considerations:
- the sound should be directed to
produce the largest reflection from the
feature.
- obstructions on the surface of the part
that must be worked around.
 DATA PRESENTATION

Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number

of different formats

The three most common formats are known in the NDT

world as

1. A-scan presentation
2. B-scan presentation
3. C-scan presentation

Each presentation mode provides a different way of looking

at and evaluating the region of material being inspected
 A-SCAN PRESENTATION

The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received

ultrasonic energy as a function of time.
The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the
vertical axis and the elapsed time (which may be related to the
sound energy travel time within the material) is displayed along the
horizontal axis
 B-SCAN PRESENTATION

The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of

the test specimen.
In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound
energy is displayed along the vertical axis and the linear position
of the transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis.
 C-SCAN REPRESENTATION

 The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of the location and size
of test specimen features.
The plane of the image is parallel to the scan pattern of the transducer. C-
scan presentations are produced with an automated data acquisition system,
such as a computer controlled immersion scanning system.
 The C-scan presentation provides an image of the features that reflect and
scatter the sound within and on the surfaces of the test piece.
 INSPECTION APPLICATIONS
Some of the applications for which ultrasonic testing
may be employed include:

• Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.)

• Erosion & corrosion thickness gauging
• Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively joined and
brazed components
• Estimation of void content in composites and plastics
• Measurement of case hardening depth in steels
• Estimation of grain size in metals
 THICKNESS GAUGING
• Ultrasonic thickness gauging is • Applications include
piping systems, storage
routinely utilized in the and containment facilities,
petrochemical and utility and pressure vessels.
industries to determine various
degrees of corrosion/erosion.
 FLAW DETECTION
Contact, pulse-echo inspection for delaminations on 36” rolled beam.

Signal showing multiple back

surface echoes in an unflawed area.

Additional echoes indicate

delaminations in the member.
 FLAW DETECTION IN WELDS
• One of the most widely used
methods of inspecting
weldment is ultrasonic
inspection.
• Full penetration groove
welds lend themselves
readily to angle beam shear
wave examination.
 APPLICATIONS

 Inspection of rails for bolts holes breaks without dismantling end assemblies

 Inspection of moving strip or plate (for laminations) as regards its thickness

 Routine inspection of locomotive axels and wheels pins for fatigue cracks
ULTRASONIC TESTING IN THE FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
Inspection of large castings and forging, for internal soundness before carrying out
expensive machining operations. These include Voids, porosity, inclusions and
cracks

good area of casting

porosity indication
 WELDMENTS (WELDED JOINTS)

The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are

 Porosity
 Slag inclusions
 Lack of side-wall fusion
 Lack of inter-run fusion
 Lack of root penetration
 Undercutting, and
 Longitudinal or transverse cracks
 Miscellaneous Ultrasonic Applications

Ice
measurement of ice thickness on
ponds and lakes, studies of ice
buildup in coolers and other
industrial processes

Concrete

monitor mechanical
properties such as
compressive strength
Medical and Biological Research Applications

These have included thickness measurements of skin layers,

muscle and fat, and corneal tissue, as well as sound velocity
measurements that can be related to the integrity of bone
Wood Products

Verifying bonding in laminated plywood and particle board, and

measurement of elastic properties.

Minerals, Rocks, Sand, Soil

ultrasonic properties to measure physical parameters such as
hardness,
elasticity, and
grain structure,
as well as compaction of soil or sand under laboratory conditions
Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing

• Sensitive to small discontinuities both surface and subsurface.

• Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is
superior to other methods.
• Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo technique is
used.
• High accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating
size and shape.
• Minimal part preparation required.
• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
• Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
• Has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to
flaw detection.
 LIMITATIONS OF ULTRASONIC
TESTING
• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
• Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound
energy into test specimen.
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect
due to low sound transmission and high signal noise.
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go
undetected.
• Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration,
and characterization of flaws.