INTRODUCTION:

● The cathode-ray oscilloscope

multipurpose display
(CRO) instrument
is a used for the
measurement
observation, , and analysis of waveforms by plotting
amplitude along
● y-axis and time along x-axis.
CRO is generally an x-y plotter; on a single
screen it can display different signals applied to different
physical
channels.quantities like temperature,
It can measure pressure and
amplitude, frequencies
● phase shiftcan
and strain of various signals.into
be converted Manyelectrical signals
by the use of transducers, and the signals can be
●displayed
A moving onluminous
the CRO.spot over the screen displays
the signal. CROs are used to study waveforms, and
other time- varying phenomena from very low to
● very high frequencies.
The central unit of the oscilloscope is
the cathode- ray tube (CRT), and the remaining part of
the CRO consists of the circuitry required to operate
Block diagram of a cathode-
ray oscilloscope:
COMPONENTS OF THE CATHODE-RAY
OSCILLOSCOPE:

The CRO consists of the following:

● (i) CRT
● (ii) Vertical amplifier
● (iii) Delay line
● (iv) Horizontal amplifier
● (v) Time-base generator
● (vi) Triggering circuit
● (vii) Power supply
 Power
supply
● It provides the voltages required by the
cathode ray tube to generate and accelerate
the electron beam.
● Cathode ray tube (CRT) requires high voltage
for pre- accelerating and accelerating anode,
low voltage required for heater, control grid,
focusing anode and the other circuits of CRO.

Vertical Amplifier: The signal under the analysis is

to be applied to vertical deflection plates through the vertical
amplifier.
Delay line
● If both vertical and horizontal signals arrives at
the same time to the corresponding deflection
plates, then only we will get exact waveform.
● But vertical signal arrives much early
compared to the horizontal signal. For this
reason, the vertical signal at the output of the
vertical amplifier should be delayed with the help
of delay line. The delay time is almost equal to
200nsec.
 Trigger circuit
● This
is triggered by the portion of the vertical
amplifier output.
● This circuit initiates then time base
generator. It is the link between the vertical
input and horizontal time base.
● Trigger circuit is used to synchronize horizontal
deflection with vertical deflection.
Horizontal Amplifier

● The saw tooth voltage produced by the time

base generator may not be of sufficient
strength.
● Hence before giving it to the horizontal
deflection plates, it is amplified using the
horizontal amplifier.
CATHODE-RAY TUBE:
● Theelectron gun or electron emitter, the
deflecting system and the fluorescent screen are the
three major components of a general purpose CRT. A detailed
diagram of the cathode-ray oscilloscope is given in Fig. 14-2.
Electron Gun:

● In the electron gun of the CRT, electrons are emitted,

converted into a sharp beam and focused upon the fluorescent
● screen.
The electron beam consists of an indirectly heated
● cathode, a control grid, an accelerating electrode and a focusing
anode.
● The electrodes are connected to the base pins. The
● cathode emitting the electrons is surrounded by a control grid
with a fine hole at its centre.
The accelerated electron beam passes
through the fine hole.
The negative voltage at the control grid controls the
flow of electrons in the electron beam, and consequently, the
brightness of the spot on the CRO screen is controlled.
Deflection Systems:
● Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam
general is purpose
used inoscilloscope.
a The deflecting system
consists of a pair of horizontal and vertical
● deflecting Letplates.
us consider two parallel vertical
P1 and P2.deflecting
The beam isplates
focused at point O on the screen in the
absence of a deflecting plate voltage.

● If a positive voltage is applied to plate P1

to plate P2,with
the respect
negatively charged electrons are attracted towards
the positive plate P1, and these electrons will come to focus at
point Y1 on the fluorescent screen.
Deflection Systems:
The deflection is proportional to the deflecting voltage between the plates.
If the polarity of the deflecting voltage is reversed, the spot appears at the
point Y2, as shown in Fig. 14-3(a).
 Deflection Systems:
● To deflect the beam horizontally, an alternating voltage is applied
to the horizontal deflecting plates and the spot on the screen horizontally,
● as shown in Fig. 14-3(b).
The electrons will focus at point X2. By changing the polarity of voltage, the
beam will focus at point X1. Thus, the horizontal movement is controlled along X1OX2
line.
Display waveform on the
screen: Figure 14-5(a) shows a sine wave applied to vertical deflecting plates and a repetitive ramp
or saw-tooth applied to the horizontal plates.
● The ramp waveform at the horizontal plates causes the electron beam to be deflected
horizontally across the screen.
●
If the waveforms are perfectly synchronized then the exact sine wave applied to the
vertical display appears on the CRO display screen.
Fluorescent
Screen:
● Phosphor is used as screen material on the
surface of inner
a CRT. Phosphor absorbs the energy of the
incident electrons. The spot of light is produced on the
screen where the electron beam hits.
● The bombarding electrons striking the
release secondary
screen,emission electrons. These electrons are
collected or trapped by an aqueous solution of graphite
called “Aquadag” which is connected to the second anode.
● Collection of the secondary electrons is necessary
keep the screen
to in a state of electrical
● equilibrium.The type of phosphor used, determines the color
the light spot.
of The brightest available phosphor isotope,
P31, produces yellow–green light with relative luminance
of 99.99%.
TIME-BASE GENERATORS:
● The CRO is used to display a waveform that varies as a function of time. If the wave form is to be
accurately reproduced, the beam should have a constant horizontal velocity.
●
As the beam velocity is a function of the deflecting voltage, the deflecting voltage
must increase linearly with time.
●
A voltage with such characteristics is called a ramp voltage. If the voltage decreases rapidly
to zero—with the waveform repeatedly produced, as shown in Fig. 14-6—we observe a pattern
which is generally called a saw-tooth waveform.
●
The time taken to return to its initial value is known as flyback or return time.
Time base generator is used to generate saw tooth voltage, required to deflect
the beam in horizontal section.
In saw tooth wave form, the deflecting voltage increases slowly and linearly
with respect to time and reduces to zero quickly (fast) i.e. raise time is high and
fall time is less.
TYPES OF THE CATHODE-
OSCILLOSCOPE
RAY
S: The categorization of CROs is done on the basis of whether they are digital or
●
analog. Digital CROs can be further classified as storage oscilloscopes.
● 1. Analog CRO: In an analog CRO, the amplitude, phase and
frequency are measured from the displayed waveform, through direct
manual reading.
● 2. Digital CRO: A digital CRO offers digital read-out of signal information,
i.e., the time, voltage or frequency along with signal display. It consists of an
electronic counter along with the main body of the CRO.
● 3. Storage CRO: A storage CRO retains the display up to a substantial
amount of time after the first trace has appeared on the screen. The storage CRO is
also useful for the display of waveforms of low-frequency signals.
● 4. Dual-Beam CRO: In the dual-beam CRO two electron beams fall
on a single CRT. The dual-gun CRT generates two different beams.
● These two beams produce two spots of light on the CRT screen which make
the simultaneous observation of two different signal waveforms possible. The
comparison of input and its corresponding output becomes easier using the dual-
beam CRO.