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Syntax Presentation2 Xbar

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Syntax Presentation2 Xbar

Uploaded by

memskhawla
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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X-BAR Theory

Introduction
X Bar Level
• Previously, we argued that sentences are structured out
of constituents belonging to a restricted set of categories.
• We practiced a two-level theory of categories; that is
there are two levels of categories in natural languages
namely:
• 1) word level categories : N=Noun, V=Verb,
P=Preposition, Adv=Adverb, etc.
• 2)Phrase level categories: NP=Noun Phrase, VP=Verb
Phrase, PP=Prepositional Phrase, AP=Adjective Phrase,
etc.
An Intermediate Level
• This theory of categories should be extended
to include a third type of category an
intermediate level between word-level and
phrase-level categories.
• That is to say that there are nominal
constituents larger than the noun but smaller
than a full Noun Phrase, and verbal
constituents larger than the verb, but smaller
than a full Verb Phrase.
X bar Level
• Determiners in English modify a type of
nominal phrase which is smaller than a full
Noun Phrase, though larger than a single
noun.
• At the beginning, syntacticians thought of
using numerical system to number the
categories in the NP; Nº for Noun, N¹ for the
intermediate level and N² for the full Noun
Phrase.
Symbols used in X BAR THEORY
• The noun phrase:
• The king of England
• King is an N
• King of England is an N´
• The King of England is an NP and also N´´
• N double-bar corresponds to the traditional
NP.
Evidence for bar level
• King of England must be a constituent because it can
occur as an independent unit in other types of
sentence structures such as :
• He became king of England
• It can undergo the constituency test with the proform
one
• Only a unitary constituent can be replaced by a proform
and indeed only a phrasal constituent of some kind.
• E.g. The present [king of England] is more popular than
the last one.
• Whereas the sentence:
• The [king] of England defeated the one of Spain is not
grammatical.
• It can be said that one in English is a kind of proform which
can replace a ‘small nominal phrase’ .
• One , in other words, is a pro-N-bar.
• It was grammatical to replace [king of England] with one
because it is an N-bar.
• It was not grammatical to replace [king] with one because it
is an N not an N bar.
• Proforms replace phrasal constituents not individual words.
Complements and Adjuncts
• In the NP (N-double bar), [The king of England], the
postnominal PP of England expands the head Noun
king into the N-bar king of England.
• All the postnominal PPs have essentially the same
constituent structure and they serve to expand N
into N-bar.
• However, this would ignore the traditional
distinction between two different types of
postnominal phrase:
• 1) complements and 2) adjuncts.
Complements and Adjuncts

• The difference between the two types of postmodifiers can


be illustrated in the following example:
• A) a student [of Physics] = Complement.
• B) a student [with long hair] = Adjunct.
• As a Complement, the PP tells us what it is that the
individual concerned studies.
• The phrase can be paraphrased by a clausal construction in
which physics functions as the complement of the verb
study.
• A) He is a [student of Physics]
• B) He is [studying Physics]
The difference between complements and
adjuncts
• On the other hand, with the other PP [with long
hair], we do not have any corresponding paraphrase
in which [long hair] can be used as the complement
of the verb study.
• A) He is [a student with ling hair] √
• B) He is [studying long hair]. X
• In the first case, the postnominal PP tells or specifies
what the student is studying ( important
information), but the second PP [with long hair]
gives us additional information about the student.
The difference between complements and
adjuncts
• This kind of PP found in [student of physics]
and [king of England] is said to be a
Complement, whereas that found in [with
long hair] is said to be an Adjunct.
Prenominal modifiers and postnominal
modifiers
• The difference between determiners (prenominal)
and complements and adjuncts (postnominal) is that:
• a) determiners expand N-bar into N-double bar or NP.
• B) adjuncts expand N´ into N-bar.
• C) complements expand N into N-bar.
• In tree diagrams, determiners are sisters of N-bar and
daughters of N-double bar (NP)
• Adjuncts are sisters and daughters of N-bar and
complements are sisters of N and daughters of N-bar.
Order of Complements and Adjuncts
• Complements must be closer to their head Noun
than Adjuncts.
• The rule is that is we modify the Noun student by an
adjunct PP such as [with long hair] and a
complement PP such as [of Physics], then the
complement phrase must precede the adjunct
phrase.
• E.g
• The student [of physics] [with long hair] √
• The student [with long hair] [of Physics] X
Optional constituents of Noun Phrases
• Determiner+ Noun+ Complement PP+ Adjunct
PP
• Deteminers are optional constituents in Noun
Phrases.
• E.g Students of physics with long hair.
• Complements and Adjuncts are also optional.
Co-ordination tests and Complements and
Adjuncts
• We can coordinate two PPs which are both
complements, e.g
• A student [of physics] and [of chemistry] √
• And two PPs which are adjuncts, e.g
• A student [with long hair] and [with blue eyes]√
• BUT, we can not coordinate a complement PP with
and adjunct PP, e.g
• A student [of physics] and [with long hair] X
• A student [with long hair] and [of physics] X
• This is because complements and adjuncts are
attached to different levels. Complements are
attached at N level (sister of N), while adjuncts
are attached at the N-bar level (sister of N-
bar).
• Only constituents attached at the same level
can be coordinated.
Nominal Premodifiers (specifiers)
• There are three kinds of nominal premodifiers:
• 1) Determiners
• 2)Complements
• 3)Attributes
• Determiners expand N-bar into N-double bar.
• Attributes expand N-bar into N-bar.
• Complements expand N into N-bar.
Adjuncts and Attributes
• Since both Attributes and Adjuncts expand N-
bar into N-bar, it seems that the two have the
same function, so that attributes are simple
prenominal adjuncts.
• A student of physics at Cambridge.
• complement adjunct
• Compare it with:
• A Cambridge physics student.
• attribute complement

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