HUMAN MEMORY

Sensory Memory
• Sensory comes from the Latin word sentire, meaning "to
perceive, feel."
• Connected with the physical senses of touch, smell, taste,
hearing, and sight
• It is noise defined in this way that limits the fidelity of
information transmission, and ultimately
of sensory performance.
• Working Memory
- is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold
information temporarily. It is important for reasoning and the
guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory
is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but
some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct,
assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation
of stored information, whereas short-term memory only
refers to the short-term storage of information.
• Long Term Memory
- is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory,
long-term memory storage capacity is believed to be unlimited.
- Long-term memory refers to the memory process in the brain that
takes information from the short-term memory store and creates
long lasting memories. These memories can be from an hour ago or
several decades ago. memory that involves the storage and recall of
information over a long period of time as days, weeks, or years.
2 types of long term memory :
Explicit - are those we consciously try to remember, recall, and report.
Implicit - is important because aging, particular types of brain trauma,
and certain disorders can impact explicit and implicit memory in
different ways.
Priming
- is a technique in which the introduction of one stimulus
influences how people respond to a subsequent stimulus.
Priming works by activating an association or representation
in memory just before another stimulus or task is introduced.
Emotional Conditioning
- events that cause strong emotions can condition people to
recognize stimuli quickly and react accordingly.
BUFFERS

• Iconic memory
- is the visual sensory memory register pertaining to the visual
domain and a fast-decaying store of visual information. It is a
component of the visual memory system which also includes visual
short-term memory (VSTM) and long-term memory (LTM).
- Iconic memory is described as a very brief , pre-categorical, high
capacity memory store. It contributes to VSTM by providing a
coherent representation of our entire visual perception for a very
brief period of time.
- Iconic memory is no longer thought of as a single entity but instead,
is composed of at least two distinctive components.
• Echoic
- Echoic memory, or auditory sensory memory, is a type of
sensory memory. It's the ultra-short-term memory of auditory
stimuli you've just heard. For a brief time, about 4 seconds,
the brain registers and temporarily stores a perfect version of
the sounds around you until it's processed.
- Since echoic memories are heard once, they are stored for
slightly longer periods of time than iconic memories (visual
memories). Auditory stimuli are received by the ear one at a
time before they can be processed and understood.
• Haptic
- is the form of sensory memory specific to touch stimuli. Haptic memory
is used regularly when assessing the necessary forces for gripping and
interacting with familiar objects.[1] It may also influence one's
interactions with novel objects of an apparently similar size and density.
Similar to visual iconic memory, traces of haptically acquired information
are short lived and prone to decay after approximately two seconds.
Example :
- Anything that uses the sensation of touch also uses your haptic memory.
For example, when you feel a raindrop on your skin, your haptic memory
records that sensation, helping you recognize what 's happening. Haptic
memory is also involved when you play a musical instrument.
• Working Memory Function and Methods
- using our working memory in our daily life include remembering
someone's email address, asking for directions and remembering
them until we reach our destination, learning the name of someone
new and keeping it in mind throughout the conversation.
- working memory is one of the brain's executive functions. It's a skill
that allows us to work with information without losing track of what
we're doing. Think of working memory as a temporary sticky note
in the brain.
• Memory and HCI
Understanding Human Memory in HCI.
- In the context of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), human memory
refers to the psychological processes that allow users to encode, store,
and retrieve information related to interactions with computer systems
and digital interfaces. Understanding human memory is crucial in HCI as
it helps designers create interfaces that align with users’ cognitive
abilities, enhancing user experience and usability.
- Understanding the limitations and characteristics of human memory
helps HCI designers create interfaces that accommodate users’
cognitive abilities. For instance, minimizing cognitive load, providing
clear and concise instructions, and using familiar design patterns can
aid users in encoding information into their memory effectively,
ensuring a better user experience.
• How information gets to LTM : Rehearsal, unconscious
consolidation , meaningful associations.
Our brains take the encoded information and place it in storage. Storage
is the creation of a permanent record of information. In order for a
memory to go into storage long-term memory, it has to pass through
three distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally
Long-Term Memory.
Rehearsal moves information from short-term memory to long-term
memory. Active rehearsal is a way of attending to information to move it
from short-term to long-term memory. During active rehearsal, you
repeat (practice) the information to be remembered. If you repeat it
enough, it may be moved into long-term memory.
- By rehearsing or recalling information repeatedly, these
neural networks strengthen. For example, if you study the
same material regularly over a long period, the pathways
involved in remembering that information become stronger.
The repeated firing of the same neurons makes it more likely
that those same neurons will be able to repeat that firing in
the future. As a result, you'll remember the information later
with ease and accuracy.
 Types of Long Term Memory (LTM)
- Declarative or explicit memory is devoted to processing
of names, dates, places, facts, events, and so forth. These
are entities that are thought of as being encoded
symbolically and that thus can be described with language.
In terms of function, declarative memory is specialized for
fast processing and learning.
- Implicit memory - Information that people don't purposely
try to remember is stored in implicit memory, which is also
sometimes referred to as unconscious memory or automatic
memory. This kind of memory is both unconscious and
unintentional.
Ways to improve the learning / storage process
* Learn something new
Memory strength is just like muscular strength. The more you use it, the
stronger it gets. But you can’t lift the same size weight every day and expect
to get stronger. You’ll need to keep your brain constantly challenged. Learning
a new skill is an excellent way to strengthen your brain’s memory capacity.
* Repeat and retrieve

Any time you learn a new piece of information, you’re more likely
to mentally record that information if it’s repeated.
Repetition reinforces the connections we create between
neurons. Repeat what you hear out loud. Try using it in a
sentence. Write it down and read it aloud.
* Try acronyms, abbreviations, and mnemonics
Mnemonic devices can be in the form of acronyms, abbreviations,
songs, or rhymes. Mnemonics have been tested since the 1960s as an
effective strategy for students. You’ve probably been taught a few
mnemonic devices for remembering long lists. For example, the colors
of the spectrum can be remembered with the name ROY G. BIV (Red,
Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet).
* Group” or “chunk” information
Grouping or chunking refers to the process of dividing newly learned
information into chunks to produce fewer, larger chunks of information.
For example, you may have noticed that it’s much easier to remember
a phone number if the 10 digits are grouped into three separate chunks
(e.g. 555-637-8299) rather than one long number (5556378299).
* Don’t turn to google right away
Modern technology has its place, but unfortunately has made
us “mentally lazy.” Before you reach for your phone to ask Siri
or Google, make a solid attempt to retrieve the information
with your mind. This process helps reinforce the neural
pathways in your brain.
* Keep yourself busy

A busy schedule can maintain your brain’s episodic memory.

One study linked busy schedules to better cognitive function.
This study, however, was limited by self-reporting.
Forgetting : is memory due to decay, interference , and access
problems ?
• Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs as a result of the
automatic decay or fading of the memory trace. Trace decay theory
focuses on time and the limited duration of short-term memory.
• This theory suggests short-term memory can only hold information for
between 15 and 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed. After this time the
information / trace decays and fades away.
• No one disputes the fact that memory tends to get worse the longer
the delay between learning and recall, but there is disagreement
about the explanation for this effect.
• Interference theory states that forgetting occurs because memories
interfere with and disrupt one another, in other words forgetting
occurs because of interference from other memories.
There are two ways in which interference can cause
forgetting:
1.Proactive interference (pro=forward) occurs when you
cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been
learned. When what we already know interferes with what
we are currently learning – where old memories disrupt new
memories.
2.Retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when
you forget a previously learned task due to the learning of a
new task. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier
learning – where new memories disrupt old memories.
Information access/retrieval: recall vs. recognition
* Recognition refers to our ability to “recognize” an event or piece of
information as being familiar, while recall designates the retrieval of
related details from memory.
• Recognition is easier than recall because it involves more cues:
all those cues spread activation to related information in memory, raise
the answer’s activation, and make you more likely to pick it. It’s the
reason why multiple-choice questions are easier than
open-ended questions, where the respondent has to come up with an
answer.
• In our everyday life, we often use a combination of recognition and
recall to retrieve information from memory. Often, we start with a
piece of information that is easy to recall to narrow down our choices,
and then we go through the resulting choices one by one and recognize
the relevant one.
• Methods for improving recall : Association, categorization, and
visualization
• If you struggle with associative memory, there are many techniques you
can use to improve it. Some of these include the use of mnemonic devices,
visualization, and association-forming strategies (such as linking things with
each other). By doing so, you will be able to recall memories more easily.
Below are some ways to practice the retrieval of associations.
• 1. Create a network of associations. This means associating yourself
with people who are able to recall many things (or who say they are good at
recalling things). By watching them and modeling their actions, you can
improve your own ability to recall items by overlearning.
• 2. Associate one person or thing to another in some way, such as
using a rhyme, sentence or phrase. The association can be general
(e.g., "grass is green") or specific (e.g., "the doctor is in the house").
• 3. Create a story with many associations to make it more
memorable and to help you recall details. If you have trouble recalling
information, then practice recalling it again and again, and note where you
are having problems.
• 4. Practice remembering items in a serial list by creating
associations to things at the beginning of the list (as opposed to
holding these items in short-term memory). The goal is to make it
easier to remember the first item, which will help you recall the rest of the
items.
• 5. Use the method of loci to remember lists or other materials by
associating them with locations that you are familiar with (e.g.,
rooms in your home). This is related to space-coding techniques used by
pilots to remember flight paths and procedures, and it works best if you
create a visual image of each location.
• Reasoning and logic structures
Reasoning, like the prefrontal cortex, is a primarily human trait
that develops late in childhood. Reasoning deficits can arise
from various causes. For example, impaired reasoning can be
an initial symptom of frontal lobe dementia or the sequelae of
frontal lobe stroke or head trauma
The logic structure of human behavior can be broken down
into a sequential, cause-and-effect framework. This can be
represented as a series of steps that link stimuli, cognitive and
emotional processing, decision-making, action, and feedback.
HERE'S A SIMPLIFIED, MORE FORMALIZED VERSION OF THIS STRUCTURE:
1. STIMULI (INPUT)
•EXTERNAL STIMULI: ENVIRONMENTAL TRIGGERS (E.G., SOUNDS, SIGHTS, EVENTS,
INTERACTIONS).
•INTERNAL STIMULI: INTERNAL STATES OR FEELINGS (E.G., HUNGER, FATIGUE,
THOUGHTS).
2. PERCEPTION & INTERPRETATION (PROCESSING)
•ATTENTION: WHAT THE INDIVIDUAL FOCUSES ON FROM THE STIMULI.
•COGNITIVE APPRAISAL: HOW THE BRAIN INTERPRETS THE STIMULUS. THIS INVOLVES:
•IDENTIFYING THE RELEVANCE OF THE STIMULUS.
•APPLYING PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES, BIASES, OR MENTAL FRAMEWORKS TO UNDERSTAND
THE SITUATION.
3. EMOTIONAL RESPONSE (AFFECTIVE REACTION)
•EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO THE STIMULI (E.G., FEAR, JOY, ANGER, SADNESS).
•EMOTIONS INFLUENCE THE NATURE OF THE SUBSEQUENT BEHAVIOR (E.G., FEAR MAY
LEAD TO AVOIDANCE, EXCITEMENT MAY LEAD TO ENGAGEMENT).
• 4. Decision-Making (Evaluation)
• Cognitive Evaluation: Logical reasoning, weighing options, considering
potential outcomes.
• Automatic/Instinctive Response: Behavioral patterns or habits
triggered without conscious reasoning (e.g., reflexive actions,
conditioned behaviors).
• 5. Action (Behavioral Output)
• Physical Action: Observable behaviors (e.g., moving, speaking).
• Cognitive Action: Internal decisions, thoughts, or self-talk without
physical expression.
• Verbal/Non-Verbal Communication: Speaking, gestures, body
language, etc.