CHAPTER - 8

HOW ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

Reproduction :-
Reproduction is the process by which living organisms
produce new individuals of the same species.
Reproduction is necessary for the survival and increase
in the population of a species. If organisms do not
reproduce, their population decreases and species will
become extinct.

Significance of Reproduction:
1. It allows continuity of of a species generation after
generation.
2.It plays an important role in evolution by transmitting
favorable variations from one generation to another
generation.
Body design of organisms: Organisms look
similar because their body design are similar.

• Reproduction at its most basic level involves making copy

of the blue print of body design.
• DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for
making protein and different proteins lead to different body
design.
• A basic level of reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy.
• DNA copy is accompanied by a cell division giving rise to
two cells.
• DNA copying always involves some variation, hence DNA
copies generated are similar but not identical.
this tendency of variation during reproduction leads to
evolution.
The importance of
variation :- during reproduction is important for
DNA copying
maintaining the body designs of different organisms to
survive in the existing environment. But the environment is
constantly changing due to changes in temperature,
climate, water levels etc. If organisms cannot adjust
themselves to the changes in the environment then their
species will become extinct.
If there are variations in some individuals of a species
they may be able to survive the changes in the
environment.
So variations in species is necessary for the survival of
different species and for the evolution of new species.
4) Types of reproduction :-
There are two main types of reproduction in living organisms. They
are asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction :- is reproduction in which new
individuals are produced from a single parent.
Sexual reproduction :- is reproduction in which two
individuals are involved to produce a new individual.
Asexual reproduction is of different types. They are:- fission,
budding, regeneration, fragmentation, spore formation,
vegetative propagation etc.
i) Fission :-
Fission is an asexual reproduction by which a unicellular
organism divides and forms two or more new individuals.
Fission is of two types. They are binary fission and multiple
fission.
i)Binary fission :- In this method an organism divides and
forms two individuals. First the nucleus divides and forms
two nuclei. Then the cytoplasm divides and forms two
daughter cells. Eg:- Amoeba, Paramaecium etc.
ii) Multiple fission :- In this method one organism divides
into many daughter cells. Eg.Plasmodium (Malarial
parasite).
ii) Budding :-
In this method a bud like projection is formed on the
body of the organism. The bud then develops into a new
individual. It then separates from the parent and forms
an independent individual. Eg:- Hydra, Yeast etc.

bud

bud
iii) Regeneration :-
It is the ability of a fully differentiated organisms to give
rise to new individual organisms from its body part. The
body part which contain a specialesed cell grow or
regenerate into separate individuals.
Eg :- Hydra, Planaria, etc.
iv) Fragmentation :-
In this method the body of a simple multicellular
organism breaks up into smaller pieces on maturation and
each fragment develops into new individuals.
Eg :- Spirogyra, Flatwom.
v) Spore formation :-
In this method structures called sporangia produce tiny
cells called spores. When the spores come in contact with a
moist surface, it develops into new individuals.
Eg :- Rhizopus(Bread mould) , Mucor, Penicillium etc.
vi) Vegetative propagation :-
In this method new plants are produced from the
vegetative parts of the plant like root, stem or leaves without
the help of any reproductive organs.
It may be natural:
By Roots: Dahalia, Sweet potato.
By stems: Ginger(Rhizome),
Potato(Tuber),Onion(Bulb) By leaves: Bryophyllum
Vegetative propagation can also be done artificially by cutting
layering, grafting etc.
Cutting - Rose, Chrysanthum, Grapes etc.
Layering - Bougainvillea, Jasmine, Rasberry, Strawberry
etc.
Grafting – this method is applied to improve variety of fruit
like mango, apples, peas, etc
Advantages of vegetative propagation:-
1. Plants takes less time to grow.
2. It also helps in the propagation of plants which do not
produce seeds like rose, jasmine banana or produce seed
with prolonged period of dormancy.
vii) Tissue Culture: In this method new plants are
grown by removing tissues or cells from the
growing tip of a plant.
in this technique cells are induced to devide
artificially by chemicals(Cytokinin) to form a group
of cells called „callus‟. Now the callus is transferred
to another medium containing hormones for growth
and differentiation.
the plantlets are now placed in soil,
so that
grow into mature plants.

This technique is commonly used for

ornamental plants.
Characteristics of asexual reproduction:
1. Only one individual of an organism is involved.
2. The new individual produced are genetically
identical to their parents.
3.It presents a rapid mode of multiplication.
Advantages of Asexual reproduction:
4. Plants takes less time to grow.
5. It also helps in the propagation of plants which do not produce
seeds like rose, jasmine banana or produce seed with
prolonged period of dormancy.
6.It helps to preserve parental characters.
Disadvantages of Asexual reproduction:
7. There is no genetic variation, so there is less adaptability to the
environment.
8. The disease of the parent plants get transferred to the
offspring.
3. New characters can neither be introduced nor
undesirable characters be eliminated.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: It is the process of
producing new organisms from two parents by making
use of their sex cells or gametes.
e.g- human, fish, dogs, cats and most of the flowering
plants.
•Thus the two major process i.e. formation of gametes
and fusion of gametes constitutes sexual reproduction.
•Two sexes namely Male( producing male gamete /
Sperm) and Female (producing female gamete / Ova) are
involved.
Significance of sexual reproduction:
1. It promotes variation and thus promotes diversity of
characters in the offspring's.
2. It plays a prominent role in the origin of new species.
5) Sexual reproduction in flowering plants :-
a) Reproductive parts of a flower :-
The stamen and pistil are the reproductive parts of the
flower. Stamen is the male reproductive part. It produces
pollen grains in the anther which contains the male germ
cell (male gamete). Pistil is the female reproductive part. It
produces ovules in the ovary which contain the female
germ cell (female gamete).
b) Pollination :-
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
of a flower is called pollination.
It takes place by wind(Anemophily), water (Hydrophily) insects
(Entomophily, Animals (Zoophily), Birds (Ornithophily) or Bat
(Chiropterophily).
It is of two types:-
(A) Self pollination: If the pollen grains are transferred from
the anther to the stigma of the same flower it is called
self pollination. E.g.- Pea, Wheat, Rice, Chinarose etc.
It can further be of two types:
a) Autogamy:- if the transfer of pollen grains from anther of
a flower to the stigma of the same flower is called
Autogamy.
b) Geitonogamy:- when pollen from one flower transferd
over the stigma of another flower borne on the same
plant is called Geitanogamy.
Advantages of self pollination:-
1. Ensure continuity of a race.
2. It helps to preserve parental characters as the
gametes from the same flower is involved.
3. It is not necessary for flower to produce
nectar or
sent or be colourful.
Disadvantages of self pollination:-
4. New verities cannot be obtained.
5. The genetic defects of the breed cannot b
removed.
6. Repeated self pollination leads to loss of vigour &
vitality of the species.
(B) CROSS POLLINATION:- it is the transfer of pollen
grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma
of another flower born on other plant of the same
species.
Advantages of cross pollination:
1. It result in healthier offspring.
2. Seeds produced much better
have
germinating capacity.
3. More abundent and viable seeds are
produced.
4. Variations are introduced by cross
pollination.
Disadvantages of cross pollination:-
1. Plants have to depend on external
agencies for pollination.
2. The pollen grain have to be produced in large
quantity to ensure pollination.
c) Fertilisation :-
After the pollen grain is
transferred to the stigma it
produces a pollen tube which
passes through the style and
enters the ovary and ovule. In
the ovule the male germ cell
(male gamete) fuses with the
female germ cell (female
gamete) to form a zygote. This
process is called fertilisation.
After fertilisation the zygote
divides several times and forms
the embryo which then develops
into the seed and the ovary
develops into the fruit.
Germination:
It is the initial stage in the growth of a seed
to develop into a seedling under appropriate
conditions.
REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEING:
•Is sexual reproduction involving male reproductive
organ and female reproductive organ.
•The reproductive organs of human being i.e. Testis in
male and ovary in female become functional only after
attaining sexual maturity.
in male sexual maturity is attainded at the age of
13-14 years while in female at the age of 10-12 years.
This is known as the age of pubirty.
SEXUAL MATURITY IN HUMAN BEING: various
changes takes place in human body at the time of
sexual maturity:- Changes common in both boys and
girls:-
1) Thick hair growth in armpits & genital area between
the thigh (also called Pubic region).
2) Thinner hair on legs, arms and faces.
3) Oily skin and appearence of pimples.
Changes different in boys and girls:
In Girls:
1) Breast size begin to increase.
2) Darkening of the nipple skin.
3)Start of menstruation.
In Boys:
4) Thick facial hair
growth.
5) Voice begin to crack.
6) Penis occasionally begin to erect and enlarged
followed by night flow.

PUBERTY: It is the age at which the sex hormone or

gametes begin to be produced and the boy and
girls becomes sexually mature.
6) Reproduction in human beings :-
a) Male reproductive system :- It consists of two portions-
one that produces germ cell and the other that deliver
the germ cell to the site of fertilisation. The human male
reproductive systems consists of the following organs:-
1)Testes(Sing- Testis) : are one pair lies in a small sac-
like structure outside the abdominal cavity called
scrotum. Function: to produce Sperm and male sex
hormone called Testosterone.
The scrotum decreases the temperature inside by 2
degree centigrade thus provides the optimal temperature
for formation of sperms.
2)Epididymis: is coiled tube-like structure firmly attached
to the testis.
Function: it serves as storehouse of the sperms.
Inside the
epididymis the sperm become mature and develop
motility.
3)Vas-deferens: The sperms are carried by a long tube
called vas-deferens or sperm duct into organs called
seminal vesicles, where the sperm got nourished and
stored.
4)Urethra: is a common duct for the passage of both
5) Penis: forms the external male genital organ. It is
copulatory organ with thick muscular wall.

ACCESSORY GLAND:
1) Seminal vesicles: are a pair of thin walled muscular
elongated sac which secrete fluid for nourishment of
sperms.
2) Prostate gland: also produce fluid which is released in
the urethra along with secretion of seminal vesicles.
3) Bulbo-urethral gland/Couper‟s gland: are one pair
secrete watery alkaline fluid which neutralise
acidic urethra and lubricate the urethra for passage of
semen.

SEMEN: the fluid ejaculated through penis during

sexual
intercourse (3-4ml / ejaculation).
Semen = Seminal fluid + Sperm
Seminal fluid: is secretion of seminal vesicles, prostate and
Function:
1) Provide nutrition and activation of sperm.
2)Neutralise the acidic urethra .
3) Lubrication of urethra and female genitilia to facilitate
sexual intercourse.

SPERM: 20-200 million /ml or 300-600 million/ejaculation

• Increased number of sperm cells in the semen increases
sperm competitiveness and should not be considered as biological
wastage.
•Life span: 24-48 hours in female genitilia.
Structure:
b) Female reproductive system :-
The human female reproductive system of the following
consists organs:

Human ovum (egg)

1) ovaries: are one pair located in the abdominal cavity near
the kidney.
ovaries are the female primary reproductive organ
which perform dual function of production of female
gamete or ovum and the secretion of female sex hormone
– Oestrogen & Progesterone.
2) Fallopian tube: are one pair long convoluted tubes that
carry ova/egg from the ovary to the uterus. These tubes
open into an elastic bag-like structure, the uterus.
3)Uterus/Womb: it is a hollow organ within which embryo
develops. Its upper portion is broader, while its lower
portion is narrower, called cervix.
4) Vegina: is long (about 8cm) & tubular muscular structure
receiving the cervix of the uterus. It is also called “birth
canal”. It receives sperms from the male and also serve
as the passage through which fully developed foetus is
born.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEING:

•The sperm is introduced inside the female vagina

through the penis by the process of copulation or
mating. Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube.
•Sperms are highly active & mobile which move up
through cervix into the uterus and then pass into the
fallopian tubes.
•In the fallopian tube only one sperm fertilises
ovum
the to form zygote. This is called
fertilisation.(Fertilisation only if copulation
occursplace during the ovulatory period)
takes
The embryo development of the zygote starts
immediately in the fallopian tube and pregnancy
starts while menstruation stops.
The embryo moves down to reach the uterus. The
embryo get embedded in the thick inner lining of
the uterus(process is called Implantation)
Then a special tissues develops between the
uterine Wall and the embryo (foetus) called
Placenta, through which the exchange of nutrients,
oxygen and waste products take place between the
foetus and the mother.

• The time period from the development of

foetus inside the uterus till birth is called
Gestation period. It is approximately 9 months in
human.
• At the end of gestation period the female give
birth of the fully developed foetus (The act of
giving birth is termed as Parturition)
Reproductive cycle/ Sexual Cycle/ Menstrual Cycle:
Represent cyclic changes in the reproductive system of
female. It begins with menstruation.

Menstruation: The breakdown and removal of the inner thick and soft
lining of the uterus along with blood vessels in the form of vaginal
bleeding is called menstruation / menstrual flow.
First menstruation which occurs at the age of 11-12 years
is called
MONARCHE.
The last menstruation which occurs at the age of 45 years marks the
end of the reproductive period is called MENOPAUSE.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH: is all those aspects of general health

which help a person to lead a normal, safe and satisfying life.
STDs(Sexually Transmitted Disease):- are the disease which are spread
by sexual contact from an infected person to a healthy person. They
are caused by various microorganisms that live in worm and moist
environments of the vagina, urethra, anus and mouth. Some of the
1. Gonorrhoea: is caused by bacterium – Neisseria
gonorrhoea.
It is charecterised by inflamation of urinogenital tract and the
patient feels burning sensation during urination. This bacteria
infects the Ureters in men and Cervix in Women.
2.Syphilis: Bacterium Treponema Pallidium. It is charecterised
by lesions in the mucous membrane of urinogenital tract.
3.Trichomoniasis: Protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis. It is
charecterised by some vaginal discharge at the urino-genital
tract of the female.
4.AIDS(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) :- It is caused by
virus called HIV (Human Immune Virus) which suppresses the
body's immune system and thereby making it susceptible to
any disease.
Modes of transmission of AIDS:
• By having Sexual contact with an infected person.
• By the transfusion of blood from an infected person.
• Through infected needles used for injection.
• Through the placenta from the mother to child during
pregnancy.
METHODS TO AVOID PREGENENCY:
Mechanical Barrier method: In this method physical devices
such as Condoms, diaphragm & cervical caps are used.
These devices prevent the entry of sperm in the
female genital tract during copulation, thus acting as barrier
between them.

Chemical methods: In these methods, specific

drugs are used by females which are of two types- oral
pills and Vaginal pills.
Oral pills(oral contraceptive-Ocs)- contains
Progesteron hormone mainly which stops the ovary from
releasing ovum into the fallopian tube by changing the
hormonal balance of the body.
IUCD.(Intrauterine Contraceptive Devices):-
e.g- Copper-T (Placed safely inside the uterus by a
doctor) It prevents implantation in the uterus.
SURGICAL METHOD: in this method a small portion of
vas deferens in male and the fallopian tube in female is
surgically removed or tied. It is called VASECTOMY in males