Sampling

 In research studies involving many individuals or items, it may not be

possible to observe and record data on all of them.

 Often, observations may be confined to representative items only.

 The larger group is called a population, and the representative

portion from which information is collected is called a sample.

 The procedure of selecting a representative sample from a big mass

of population is called sampling.
Sampling
 A population is a group of individuals having one or more characteristics in common. In
some cases, you may attempt to obtain information from all the elements of a
population or complete enumeration of a population as in a census.

 A widely accepted procedure is to collect information from representative samples of

the population.

 If this subset is a true representative of the overall population and exhibits similar
characteristics to any randomly chosen division of the population, then the
generalization or conclusion may have applicability to behaviour of the entire
population.
Sampling
 The process of sampling enables us to draw generalizations based on careful observations.

 A measured value based on sample data is called a statistic. You can use this statistic to estimate
the characters of a population. A population value inferred from a statistic is a parameter. The
following are the merits of sampling over complete enumeration or census of a population.

o Reduced cost: If the data are secured from only a small fraction of the population, naturally,
expenditure is less.

o Greater speed: Sample data can be collected and summarized more quickly than with
complete enumeration.
Sampling
o Greater scope for accuracy: Studies that rely on sampling have more
careful supervision than a complete enumeration.

o Degree of precision:
o Information generated through sample collection is prone to some uncertainties.
o A major problem is the occurrence of sampling errors, as only a part of the
population is measured in sampling.
o Although there will not be any sampling errors in complete enumeration,
possibilities of non-sampling errors are greater.
o If you want to have high degree of precision, take large samples and use superior
instruments for measurements.
Sampling Error
In sampling, instead of studying a whole population, you study a
fraction of the population, the sample, and infer the situation based
on that sample.
 This is actually an inductive process

 Inferences are made by observing a small section of people, animals,

or plants and extrapolate them for the whole population, which they
represent.
Sampling Error
 Note that representative sampling is a prerequisite for successfully averaging
out random errors and avoiding systematic errors.

 The quality and usefulness of your inference depends on how best is the
representative sample.

 The error occurring because of the likely faults in the sampling process is
called sampling error.

 Sampling error is the extent to which a sample drawn from a population

differs from the original population.
Non-sampling Error
Errors can also occur due to other reasons like errors in measurement,
investigator bias during data processing, and interpretation. Such errors are
called non-sampling errors.
 It includes personal error also, for example, things hidden or forgotten.

 When the population is large and sample size is small, chances of errors are
more.

 The degree of precision can be increased by taking larger samples and by

using superior instruments for measurements.
Non-sampling Error
 In census, sampling errors are absent, only non-sampling errors

 while in sampling, both types of errors occur.

 When the sample size increases, sampling error decreases, but non-
sampling error increases.

 When the sample size becomes equal to the population, there is no

sampling error as there is no difference between the population and
sample.
Sampling Methods
 Sampling methods are classified as probability sampling and non-probability
sampling.

 In probability sampling, each constituent of the population has a known probability of

being selected. Because of this character, sampling error can be estimated—a major
advantage of probability sampling.

o When extrapolating data from samples to that of population, values are presented
plus or minus the sampling error.

o Common probability methods include simple random sampling, systematic

random sampling, and stratified random sampling.
Sampling Methods
 In non-probability sampling, samples are chosen from the population using some
non-random procedures.

o Non-probability sampling methods include convenience sampling, quota

sampling, judgment sampling, and snowball sampling.

o A major disadvantage of non-probability sampling is that the extent to which

the sample differs from the population remains unknown, and therefore, it is
very difficult to estimate sampling error.

o Non-probability sampling methods are generally used for qualitative studies.

Simple Random Sampling
 For small and almost uniform populations, we generally go for simple
random sampling.

 As the name indicates, it is the simplest form of probability sampling

where individual units are selected at random.

 When you attempt sampling, ensure that every constituent of the

population has an equal chance of being selected.
Simple Random Sampling
 You have to fix up the number of samples based on the size of
population, and every element of population has the same probability
of being selected.

 Data collection will be made from the representative samples only and
not from the entire population.

 For example, when you conduct an experiment with crops, you may not
measure the heights of all the crop plants but only samples selected
through simple random sampling.
Techniques of Simple Random Sampling
Perfect randomness is an important factor in sampling because many of the
common statistical techniques used to process results are valid on truly generated
random data only. The method of selecting a sample at random depends to some
extent on the size and nature of the population. The following are some of the
commonly used methods to select samples:

o By drawing lots: This lottery method is a commonly used procedure for

random sampling especially when the population is small. Names of all the
items or individuals in a population are written on pieces of paper, and
random draws are made.
Commonly used methods to select samples conted

o By selective-service numbers: In this method, the units are arranged

in a particular order, for example, alphabetically, numerically, or
geographically. Then, you use selective-service numbers (kind of
rule) for selecting the sample. For example, every 10th, 20th, or Nth
unit can be selected.

o Random numbers: A most commonly followed approach for

scientific experiments. Usually, random numbers prepared by Fischer
and Yates or Tippett are used to draw samples. Presently, computer
generated random numbers are also in use.
Commonly used methods to select samples conted

o Grid system: Grid system is mainly employed for studying an area, especially in
ecology and geography using quadrats (or could be any shaped plots)

 A quadrat is a small plot to isolate a standard unit of area for studying the
distribution of an item over a large area, and particularly suitable for plants,
slow-moving animals such as snails and millipedes, and some aquatic organisms.

 The actual size of the quadrat is decided by the habitat being sampled and by the
purpose of the study.

 Usually, square quadrats with sides 0.5 m are used in plant sampling from
experimental plots.
Grid system conted

 In the simplest form of using quadrats, the quadrat is thrown to fall

at ‘random’ within the site. However, this is unsatisfactory in most
cases as personal bias can creep into the throwing act, that is, it may
not be truly random. Moreover, this ‘throwing’ would be possible
only in cases where quadrats of small size are used. Normally, it may
not be possible to throw anything larger than a 1 m × 1 m quadrat.

 Therefore, a better method to use quadrat is to map the entire area

and then to lay a numbered grid over the map. A random number
table is then used to select the grids for observations.
Systematic Random Sampling
 Sometimes, a variation of simple random sampling, systematic random sampling is adopted if
the entire population is finite or can be listed.

o It is also called an Nth name selection technique.

o First, the required sample size is determined, suppose it is 50 from a population of 1000.

o Then, the number of intervals is found out by dividing the population by the sample size.
Systematic Random Sampling
o One would select the first item by choosing a randomly selected
item, and then, every 40th (Nth record) item is selected from a list
of population until the sample of 50 items is completed.

o For example, if the first sample is the 6th item, subsequent

samples will be 46th, 86th, 126th, and so on until we get 50
samples.

o This kind of systematic sampling is as good as random sampling.

Stratified Random Sampling
 Stratified random sampling is a commonly used probability method when large samples are
involved.

 In such cases, it is considered superior to random sampling as it helps to reduce sampling

error.

 Stratified sampling is adopted usually for sampling heterogeneous populations.

 The population is divided into homogeneous subgroups or strata, and from each subgroup or
stratum, a random sample is drawn.

 Afterwards, for each stratum, subjects (or plots or quadrats) are selected in proportion to its
frequency in the population using random sampling procedure.
Multistage Sampling
 It is a type of stratified sampling suitable for infinite populations, where a list of
members is absent, or when the individuals are living in widely scattered groups.

 This is also called cluster or area sampling.

 The population is first divided into different stages, and random samples are drawn.

 Initially, the population is divided into first stage sampling units, from which a
random sample is selected. This sample is then divided into second stage units, and
again a sample is selected. In this way, a random sample is selected at each stage.
There must be at least two stages in this type of sampling.
Convenience Sampling
 Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique, which is
also called accidental sampling.

 It is most often used in descriptive research where the concern of

researchers is to get an inexpensive estimate of facts.

 As the name implies, selection of samples is based on convenience.

 This non-probability method is often used during preliminary stages of

research to get a rough estimate of the results.
Judgment Sampling
 Judgment sampling or purposive sampling is another commonly used non-probability
method.

 The researcher selects the sample based on some judgment, especially when the entire
population is inaccessible.

 This is actually an extension of convenience sampling. Suppose that an investigator has to take
samples from several districts. The researcher may decide to select samples from one
representative district only instead of several districts, having convinced that the chosen
district is truly representative of all the districts to be sampled.

 Although bias can occur in judgment sampling, you can still have good representation of
population, if you can do it objectively.
Quota Sampling
 Quota sampling is another non-probability sampling method almost
similar to stratified sampling.

 In quota sampling too, the researcher first identifies the strata and their
proportions as they are represented in the population.

 However, after selecting the stratum, samples are drawn from each
stratum using the procedure of convenience or judgment sampling
unlike stratified sampling, where each stratum is filled by random
sampling.
Snowball Sampling
 Snowball sampling is a special non-probability sampling method for
situations where the desired sample characteristic is rare.

 In certain occasions, locating experimental subjects may be very

difficult or costly. In such cases, the researcher can try referrals from
initial subjects to generate additional subjects.

 Although this technique substantially reduces difficulties of researchers

in locating samples and cut the cost on searching, this may increase
sampling bias.