Database Systems

October 15, 2014

Lecture #5

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 Long Reflection: DB design
• Step 1: Requirements Analysis
– What data to store in the database?
• Step 2: Conceptual Database Design
– Come up with the design: Entity-Relation (ER) model
– Sketch the design with ER diagrams
• Step 3: Logical Database Design
– Implement the design: relational data model
– Map ER diagrams to relational tables

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 Recent Reflection: DB design
• Last lecture:
– Query language: how to ask questions about the [relational] database?
– Mathematical query language: Relational Algebra
• This lecture
– A real query language: SQL (Structured Query Language)

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 Review: Relational Algebra
• A query is applied to table(s), and the result of a query is
also a table.
• Find the names of sailors who have reserved boat 103
πsname((σbid = 103 Reserves) ∞ Sailors)

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 Example Table Definitions
Sailors(sid: integer, sname: string, rating: integer, age: real)
Boats(bid: integer, bname: string, color: string)
Reserves(sid: integer, bid: integer, day: date)

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 Review: Relational Algebra
• Basic relational algebra operators:
– Selection (σ, pronounced sigma): Select a subset of rows from a
table.
– Projection (π): Delete unwanted columns from a table.
– Cross-product ( X ): Combine two tables.
– Set-difference ( - ): Tuples in table 1, but not in table 2.
– Union ( U ): Tuples in tables 1 or 2.

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 Review: Relational Algebra (more)
• Additional relational algebra operators:
– Intersection (∩) : tuples in both tables 1 and 2.
– Join (∞): conditional cross product
– Division (/)
– Renaming (p)
• Operations composed into complex query expression
• Query in English?
πsid (σ age > 20 Sailors) –
πsid ((σ color = ‘red’ Boats) ∞ Reserves ∞ Sailors)

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 Relational Algebra to SQL
• Relational operators → SQL commands
Relational Algebra:
πsname (σbid = 103 (Sailors∞ Reserves))
SQL:
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=103
• Guess the mapping?
– Notice the difference between SELECT (SQL) and σ

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W
SQL: Queries, Constraints, Triggers

Chapter 5

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 Lecture Outline
• Basic Query • Null Values
– SELECT • Integrity Constraints
• Set Constructs – CHECK, CREATE ASSERTION
– UNION, INTERSECT,
EXCEPT, IN, ANY, ALL, • Triggers
EXISTS – CREATE TRIGGER, FOR
• Nested Queries EACH ROW
• Aggregate Operators
– COUNT, SUM, AVG, MAX,
MIN, GROUP BY, HAVING

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 Example Table Definitions
Sailors(sid: integer, sname: string, rating: integer, age: real)
Boats(bid: integer, bname: string, color: string)
Reserves(sid: integer, bid: integer, day: date)

• Find names of sailors who’ve reserved boat #103

SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=103

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 Basic SQL Query
SELECT [DISTINCT] target-list
FROM relation-list
WHERE qualification

• Relation-list: A list of relation names (possibly with range-

variable after each name).
• Target-list: A list of attributes of relations in relation-list
• Qualification: conditions on attributes (<, >, =, and, or,
not, etc.)
• DISTINCT: optional keyword for duplicate removal.
– Default = no duplicate removal!

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 How to evaluate a query?
SELECT [DISTINCT] target-list
FROM relation-list
WHERE qualification
• Conceptual query evaluation using relational operators:
1) Compute the cross-product of relation-list.
2) Discard resulting tuples if they fail qualifications.
3) Delete attributes that are not in target-list. (called column-list)
4) If DISTINCT is specified, eliminate duplicate rows.
• Only conceptual because of inefficiency computation
– An optimizer can find better strategy
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=103
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 Example of Conceptual Evaluation
(1)
SELECT S.sname (1) Compute the cross-
FROM Sailors S, Reserves R product of relation-list.
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=103

Sailors Reserves
sid sname rating age sid bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
X
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0

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 Example of Conceptual Evaluation
(2)
SELECT S.sname (2) Discard tuples if they fail
FROM Sailors S, Reserves R qualifications.
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=103

Sailors X Reserves
S.sid sname rating age R.sid bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96 15
 Example of Conceptual Evaluation
(3)
SELECT S.sname (3) Delete attribute columns that
FROM Sailors S, Reserves R not in target-list.
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=103 sname
Sailors X Reserves rusty

(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96
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 A Note on Range Variables
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors as S, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND bid=103
OR
SELECT sname
FROM Sailors, Reserves
WHERE Sailors.sid=Reserves.sid AND bid=103

• Really needed range variables SELECT sname

FROM Sailors S, Reserves R1,
only if the same relation
Reserves R2
appears twice in the FROM
WHERE S.sid = R1.sid AND
clause.
S.sid = R2.sid AND
R1.bid <> R2.bid
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 Find the names of sailors who’ve reserved at
least one boat
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid Sailors X Reserves

(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96

22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96

31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96

31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96

58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96

58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96 18

 DISTINCT
• Find the names and ages of Sid Sname Rating Age
all sailors 22 Dustin 7 45.0
SELECT S.sname, S.age
FROM Sailors S 29 Brutus 1 33.0
• Add DISTINCT to this query? 31 Lubber 8 55.5
• Replace S.sname by S.sid in the 32 Andy 8 25.5
SELECT clause?
• Add DISTINCT to the above? 58 Rusty 10 35.0
64 Horatio 7 35.0
71 Zorba 10 16.0
74 Horatio 9 35.0
85 Art 3 25.5
95 Bob 3 63.5
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Find sailors whose names begin and end with
B and contain at least three characters.
SELECT S.age, Sid Sname Rating Age
age1=S.age-5,
22 Dustin 7 45.0
2*S.age AS age2
29 Brutus 1 33.0
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.sname LIKE ‘B_%B’ 31 Lubber 8 55.5
• AS and = are two ways to 74 Horatio 9 35.0
name fields in result. 85 Art 3 25.5
• LIKE for string matching.
95 Bob 3 20
– `_’ for one character
– `%’ for 0 or more characters.
Age Age1 Age2
20 15 40
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 Find sid’s of sailors who’ve reserved a red or
a green boats.
SELECT DISTINCT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid
AND (B.color=‘red’ OR B.color=‘green’)
• UNION: work on two union-compatible sets of tuples
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid AND B.color=‘red’
UNION
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid AND B.color=‘green’

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Find sid’s of sailors who’ve reserved
a red and a green boat
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid AND B.color=‘red’
INTERSECT
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid AND B.color=‘green’

• (A Except B) returns tuples in A but not in B.

• What is the query in English if we replace INTERSECT by EXCEPT?
– Find sids of all sailors who have reserved a red boat but not a green
boat.

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 SET Construct: UNION ALL
• UNION, INTERSECT, and EXCEPT delete duplicate by
default.
• To retain duplicates, use UNION ALL, INTERSECT ALL, or
EXCEPT ALL.

Sid Sname Sid Sname

Sid Sname
22 Dustin 71 Zorba
71 Zorba
INTERSECT 71 Zorba = 74 Horatio
74 Horatio
ALL 74 Horatio 74 Horatio
74 Horatio
95 Bob 74 Horatio
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 Nested Queries
• WHERE clause can contain an SQL subquery.
– (Actually, so can FROM and HAVING clauses.)
• Find names of sailors who’ve reserved boat #103:
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.sid IN (SELECT R.sid Subquery: finds sids
FROM Reserves R who have reserved
WHERE R.bid=103) bid 103
• (x IN B) returns true when x is in set B.
– To find sailors who’ve not reserved #103, use NOT IN.
• Nested loops Evaluation
– For each Sailors tuple, check the qualification by computing the subquery.
– Does the subquery result change for each Sailor row?
• When would subquery result change for each Sailor row?

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 Nested Queries with Correlation
SELECT S.sname Correlation: subquery finds all
FROM Sailors S reservations for
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * bid 103 from current sid
FROM Reserves R
WHERE R.bid=103 AND S.sid=R.sid )
• EXISTS is another set operator, like IN.
– (EXISTS S) returns true when S is not empty.
• What is the above query in English?
– Find sailors who have reserved boat #103
• In case of correlation, subquery must be re-computed for each
Sailors tuple.

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 Nested Queries with UNIQUE
Sailors(sid: integer, sname: string, rating: integer, age: real)
Boats(bid: integer, bname: string, color: string)
Reserves(sid: integer, bid: integer, day: date)

• (UNIQUE S) returns true if S has no duplicate tuples or S is empty.

SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S Reserves
WHERE UNIQUE (SELECT R.bid sid bid day
FROM Reserves R
WHERE R.bid=103 AND S.sid=R.sid) 22 101 10/10/96
• What is the above query in English? 58 103 11/12/96
– Finds sailors with at most one reservation for boat #103. 58 103 12/12/96
• Replace R.bid with *?
– Finds sailors with at most one reservation for boat #103 in a given day.

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 More on Set-Comparison Operators
• Have seen IN, EXISTS and UNIQUE. Can also use NOT IN, NOT EXISTS, and
NOT UNIQUE.
• Also available: op ANY, op ALL, where op can be >, <, =, ≠, ≤, ≥
– (a > ANY B) returns true when a is greater than any one element in set B.
– (a > ALL B) returns true when a is greater than all elements in set B.
SELECT *
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.rating > ANY (SELECT S2.rating
FROM Sailors S2
WHERE S2.sname=‘Horatio’)
• What is the above query in English?
– Find sailors whose rating is greater than that of some sailor called Horatio.
• What is the above query in English if > ANY is replaced by > ALL?
– Find sailors whose rating is greater than all sailors called Horatio.

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 Find sid’s of sailors who’ve reserved a
red and a green boat
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid AND B.color=‘red’
INTERSECT
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid AND B.color=‘green’

• Rewrite INTERSECT with IN (plus a subquery)

– (x IN B) returns true when x is in set B.
– Strategy?

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 Rewriting INTERSECT Using IN
SELECT S.sid
FROM Sailors S, Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid AND B.color=‘red’
AND S.sid IN (SELECT S2.sid
FROM Sailors S2, Boats B2, Reserves R2
Find sids who’ve WHERE S2.sid=R2.sid AND R2.bid=B2.bid
reserved a green AND B2.color=‘green’)
boat
• Find sid’s of Sailors who’ve reserved red but not green boats
(EXCEPT)
– Replace IN with NOT IN.

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 Division in SQL
• Find sailors who’ve SELECT S.sname
reserved all boats. FROM Sailors S
WHERE NOT EXISTS
• Strategy? ((SELECT B.bid
– Find all boats that have FROM Boats B)
EXCEPT
been reserved by a sailor (SELECT R.bid
– Compare with all boats FROM Reserves R
– Do the sailor’s reserved WHERE
R.sid=S.sid))
boats include all boats?
• Yes → include this sailor (A EXCEPT B)
• No → exclude this sailor returns tuples
in A but not in
B.
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Division in SQL Sailors
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
• Can you do it the hard way, without 31 lubber 8 55.5
EXCEPT & with NOT EXISTS?
• Strategy: Boats
– For each sailor, check that there is no boat
that has not been reserved by this sailor. bid bname color
SELECT S.sname 101 xyz red
FROM Sailors S 103 abc green
WHERE NOT EXISTS (
SELECT B.bid Reserves
FROM Boats B
sid bid day
WHERE NOT EXISTS (
SELECT R.bid 22 101 10/10/96
FROM Reserves R 31 101 11/12/96
WHERE R.bid = B.bid AND R.sid = S.sid)) 31 103 12/12/96
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 Aggregate Operators
• COUNT (*)
• COUNT ( [DISTINCT] A)
– A is a column
• SUM ( [DISTINCT] A)
• AVG ( [DISTINCT] A)
• MAX (A)
• MIN (A)
• Count the number of sailors
SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM Sailors S

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 Find the average age of sailors with
rating = 10
Sailors(sid: integer, sname: string, rating: integer, age: real)

SELECT AVG (S.age)

FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.rating=10

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Count the number of different sailor
names
Sailors(sid: integer, sname: string, rating: integer, age: real)
SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT S.sname)
FROM Sailors S

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 Find the age of the oldest
sailor
Sailors(sid: integer, sname: string, rating: integer, age: real)
SELECT MAX(S.AGE)
FROM Sailors S

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 Find name and age of the oldest
sailor(s)
SELECT S.sname, MAX (S.age)
FROM Sailors S
• This is illegal, but why?
– Cannot combine a column with a value (unless we use
GROUP BY)
SELECT S.sname, S.age
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.age = (SELECT MAX (S2.age) FROM Sailors S2)
• Okay, but not supported in every system
– Convert a table (of a single aggregate value) into a
single value for comparison

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 GROUP BY and HAVING
• So far, aggregate operators are applied to all (qualifying)
tuples.
– Can we apply them to each of several groups of tuples?
• Example: find the age of the youngest sailor for each
rating level.
– In general, we don’t know how many rating levels exist, and what
the rating values for these levels are!
– Suppose we know that rating values go from 1 to 10; we can write
10 queries that look like this:
SELECT MIN (S.age)
For i = 1, 2, ... , 10: FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.rating = i
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 Find the age of the youngest sailor
for each rating level
Sid Sname Rating Age
SELECT S.rating, MIN (S.age) as age
FROM Sailors S 22 Dustin 7 45.0
GROUP BY S.rating 31 Lubber 8 55.5
(1) The sailors tuples are put into “same 85 Art 3 25.5
rating” groups. 32 Andy 8 25.5
(2) Compute the Minimum age for each 95 Bob 3 63.5
rating group.
Rating Age
3 25.5
Rating Age (1)
3 63.5
3 25.5 (2) 7 45.0
7 45.0 8 55.5
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8 25.5 8 25.5
 Find the age of the youngest sailor for each
rating level that has at least 2 members
SELECT S.rating, MIN (S.age) as Sid Sname Rating Age
minage 22 Dustin 7 45.0
FROM Sailors S 31 Lubber 8 55.5
GROUP BY S.rating 85 Art 3 25.5
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1
32 Andy 8 25.5
1. The sailors tuples are put into
“same rating” groups. 95 Bob 3 63.5
2. Eliminate groups that have < 2 Rating Age
members. 3 25.5
3. Compute the Minimum age for Rating Minage 3 63.5
each rating group. 3 25.5 7 45.0
8 25.5 8 55.5
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8 25.5
 Queries With GROUP BY and
HAVING
SELECT [DISTINCT] target-list
FROM relation-list SELECT S.rating, MIN (S.age)
WHERE qualification as age
GROUP BY grouping-list FROM Sailors S
HAVING group-qualification GROUP BY S.rating
HAVING S.rating > 5
• The target-list contains (i) attribute names (ii) terms with
aggregate operations (e.g., AVG (S.age)).
• The attribute list (e.g., S.rating) in target-list must be in
grouping-list.
• The attributes in group-qualification must be in grouping-
list.

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 Say if Attribute list is not in
grouping-list
Sid Sname Rating Age
SELECT S.sname, S.rating,
AVG (S.age) as age 22 Dustin 7 45.0
FROM Sailors S 31 Lubber 8 55.5
GROUP BY S.rating 85 Art 3 25.5
HAVING COUNT(S.rating) > 1
32 Andy 8 25.5
95 Bob 3 63.5
Sname Rating Age
Art 3 25.5
Sname Rating Age
Bob 3 63.5
? 3 44.5
Dustin 7 45.0
? 8 40.5
Lubber 8 55.5
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Andy 8 25.5
 Say if attributes in the Group
qualification is not in grouping-list
Sid Sname Rating Age
SELECT S.rating, AVG (S.age) 22 Dustin 7 45.0
as age 31 Lubber 8 55.5
FROM Sailors S
85 Art 3 25.5
GROUP BY S.rating
HAVING S.sname ≠ ‘Dustin’ 32 Andy 8 25.5
95 Bob 3 63.5
Sname Rating Age
? Art 3 25.5
Rating Age
Bob 3 63.5
Dustin 7 45.0
Lubber 8 55.5
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Andy 8 25.5
 Conceptual Evaluation
• Without GROUP BY and HAVING:
– Compute cross-product of relation-list
– Remove tuples that fail qualification
– Delete unnecessary columns
• With GROUP BY and HAVING, continue with
– Partition remaining tuples into groups by the value of attributes in
grouping-list (specified in GROUP-BY clause)
– Remove groups that fail group-qualification (specified in HAVING
clause).
– Compute one answer tuple per qualifying group.

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 For each red boat, find the number
of reservations for this boat
SELECT B.bid, COUNT (*) AS SELECT B.bid, COUNT (*) AS
num_reservations num_reservations
FROM Boats B, Reserves R FROM Boats B, Reserves R
WHERE R.bid=B.bid AND WHERE R.bid=B.bid
B.color=‘red’ GROUP BY B.bid
GROUP BY B.bid HAVING B.color=‘red’

• Illegal, why?
– B.color does not appear in
group-list

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Find the age of the youngest sailor with age > 18 for
each rating with at least 2 sailors (of any age)

SELECT S.rating, MIN • How to fix it?

(S.age) – Use subquery in the HAVING
clause.
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.age > 18 SELECT S.rating, MIN (S.age)
GROUP BY S.rating FROM Sailors S
HAVING COUNT(S) > 1 WHERE S.age > 18
GROUP BY S.rating
HAVING
• What is wrong? 1 < ANY (SELECT COUNT (*)
– COUNT(S) is counting FROM Sailors S2
tuples after the
qualification (S.age > 18). WHERE
S.rating=S2.rating)
– Eliminate groups with
multiple sailors but only
one sailor with age > 18. 45
Find rating(s) for (which the average age
is the minimum) over all rating groups
SELECT S.rating • How to fix it?
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.age =
(SELECT MIN (AVG (S2.age)) SELECT Temp.rating
FROM Sailors S2 FROM (SELECT S.rating, AVG
GROUP BY S2.rating) (S.age) AS avgage
A temp table
(rating, avg age) FROM Sailors S
GROUP BY S.rating) AS
• What’s wrong? Temp
– Aggregate operations WHERE Temp.avgage = (SELECT
cannot be nested MIN (Temp.avgage)
FROM Temp)

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 CREATE TABLE Sailors
Table Constraints ( sid INTEGER,
sname CHAR(10),
rating INTEGER,
• Specify constraints over a age REAL,
single table PRIMARY KEY (sid),
– Useful when more general CHECK ( rating >= 1
ICs than keys are involved. AND rating <= 10 )
CREATE TABLE Reserves
( sname CHAR(10), The boat
‘Interlake’ cannot
bid INTEGER,
• Constraints can be day DATE,
be reserved
named. PRIMARY KEY (bid,day),
CONSTRAINT noInterlakeRes
CHECK (`Interlake’ ≠
( SELECT R.bname
FROM Reservers R
WHERE R.bid=bid)))
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 Assertions: Constraints Over
Multiple Tables
CREATE TABLE Sailors Number of boats
( sid INTEGER, plus number of
• Awkward and sname CHAR(10), sailors is < 100
rating INTEGER,
wrong!
age REAL,
– If Sailors is empty,
PRIMARY KEY (sid),
the number of CHECK
Boats tuples can( (SELECT COUNT (S.sid) FROM Sailors S)
be anything! + (SELECT COUNT (B.bid) FROM Boats B) < 100 )
• ASSERTION is the
right solution; not
CREATE ASSERTION smallClub
associated withCHECK
either table. ( (SELECT COUNT (S.sid) FROM Sailors S)
+ (SELECT COUNT (B.bid) FROM Boats B) < 100 )
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 Triggers
• Trigger: procedure that starts automatically if specified
changes occur to the DBMS
• A trigger has three parts:
– Event (activates the trigger)
– Condition (tests whether the triggers should run)
– Action (what happens if the trigger runs)

CREATE TRIGGER incr_count AFTER INSERT ON Students // Event

WHEN (new.age < 18) // Condition
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN // ACTION: a procedure in Oracle’s PL/SQL syntax
count := count + 1
END
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 Starwar Exercises
char(name, race, homeworld, affiliation)
planets(name, type, affiliation)
timetable(cname, pname, movie, arrival, departure)

Which planet does Princess Leia go to in movie3?

SELECT distinct pname

FROM timetable
WHERE cname ='Princess Leia' and movie=3
50
 Starwar Exercises
char(name, race, homeworld, affiliation)
planets(name, type, affiliation)
timetable(cname, pname, movie, arrival, departure)

• How many people stay on Dagobah in movie 3?

SELECT count(DISTINCT characters.name)

FROM timetable, characters
WHERE movie=3 and pname ='Dagobah' and
timetable.cname=characters.name and
characters.race='Human'

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 Starwar Exercises
char(name, race, homeworld, affiliation)
planets(name, type, affiliation)
timetable(cname, pname, movie, arrival, departure)

• Who has been to his/her homeworld in movie 2?

SELECT distinct c.name

FROM characters c, timetable t
WHERE c.name=t.cname and t.pname=c.homeworld and
movie=2

52
 Starwar Exercises
char(name, race, homeworld, affiliation)
planets(name, type, affiliation)
timetable(cname, pname, movie, arrival, departure)

• Find all characters that have been on all planets of rebels.

SELECT name
FROM characters c
WHERE not exists (
SELECT p.name FROM planets p
WHERE affiliation='rebels' and p.name NOT IN
(SELECT pname from timetable t where
t.cname=c.name and t.pname=p.name))
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 Starwar Exercises
char(name, race, homeworld, affiliation)
planets(name, type, affiliation)
timetable(cname, pname, movie, arrival, departure)

• Find distinct names of the planets visited by those of race

“droid”.

SELECT distinct t.pname

FROM char c, timetable t
WHERE c.name=t.cname and c.race='droid'

54
 Starwar Exercises
char(name, race, homeworld, affiliation)
planets(name, type, affiliation)
timetable(cname, pname, movie, arrival, departure)

• For each character and for each neutral planet, how much
time total did the character spend on the planet?

SELECT c.name, p.name, SUM(t.departure-t.arrival+1) as amount

FROM characters c, timetable t, planets p
WHERE t.cname=c.name and t.pname=p.name and p.affiliation='neutral'
GROUP BY c.name, p.name

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